


HE PR 

CITIZR 




ASHLEY 





Class _LKVL£^ 

Book 

Copyright N° 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



1 



THE PRACTICE OF 
CITIZENSHIP 



THE ASHLEY BOOKS 

ON 

THE NEW SOCIAL SCIENCE 

FOR 

SECONDARY SCHOOLS 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 
EARLY EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION 
MODERN EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION 
MODERN EUROPE 
AMERICAN HISTORY (Revised) 
THE NEW CIVICS 



THE 
PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

IN HOME, SCHOOL, 
BUSINESS, AND COMMUNITY 



BY 

ROSCOE LEWIS ASHLEY 

author of 

"the new civics" 

"modern european civilization" 



NEW YORK 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1922 

All rights reserved 



Printed in United States of America 



^ 






Copyright, 1922 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 



Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1922 



SEP i 3*922 

©CI.A681765 
/H& I 



PREFACE 

Education for citizenship is one of the first duties 
of any self-governing society. The practice of citizen- 
ship is fully as important a duty. Since we learn by 
doing, we shall never become good citizens simply by 
studying civic relations and problems, that is, if we do 
no more than prepare ourselves for future duties and 
responsibilities. If citizenship were chiefly a matter 
of voting and of governmental activities, the schools 
would necessarily limit themselves to preparation for 
adult citizenship. But citizenship is far more than that. 
A person is a citizen because he is a member of a nation; 
but the nation is only the greatest and most important 
of a large number of civic groups of which all of us are 
members. A few of these groups, such as the state 
and municipality, are chiefly political; some of them, 
such as business organizations, are predominantly eco- 
nomic; but for boys or girls real membership is limited 
chiefly to two social groups, the home and the school. 

In order that a citizen may be prepared for his life 
place in society he must learn as much as possible about 
that society, how it is organized, why it is organized 
in that way, and what is being done by each of the groups 
of which he is actively a member. Understanding is 
only the first step, but even to understand, one must 
not only study, one must also practice. It is impossible 
for the school boy and girl, by imagining themselves 
adult citizens, to take an active part in the work of 
government. It is the easiest thing in the world, how- 
ever, for them to study, without pretense, the needs 



vi PREFACE 

of the home and of the school and to interest themselves 
in the activities of both. By active participation in home 
and school they very soon discover what are the rights 
and duties that go with their civic relations as members 
of those groups, and they actually perform the civic 
duties pertaining to their membership in them. Under 
proper direction and guidance, therefore, a student 
learns civic relationships typical of those which every 
adult citizen possesses, and consciously puts into prac- 
tice the civic knowledge which he possesses. He learns 
to study a civic problem not as a thing by itself, but as 
a necessary or desirable activity to be performed by a 
particular group of which he may be a member. 

If a student knows how any civic group is organized, 
if he understands what it is trying to do, if he perceives 
what every member ought to receive from this civic 
group and ought to contribute to it, he is in a position 
to understand his own actions, because he knows when 
he has fallen short of doing the right thing and can 
improve the work for which the group depends upon 
him and upon him alone. Is there any better way in 
which boys and girls can comprehend what good citizen- 
ship involves? Furthermore, if they realize in early 
youth that citizenship is a matter of the home and of 
the school — of things close at hand — as well as of politics, 
they will have an interest in citizenship that they would 
not possess if citizenship were to them some far off future 
possibility, associated with a remote government with 
which they are connected but a few times a year, at the 
polling place, in the tax collector's office, or in connec- 
tion with some public service. 

The author's interest in school and home citizenship 
has extended over a number of years. When these 
subjects have been studied by advanced high school 
students of civics, he has repeatedly been asked why 



PREFACE vii 

instruction was not given in these fundamentals very 
much earlier in the high school. The World War not 
only brought new impetus to the study of citizenship 
and democracy, but it gave us new insight into the real 
nature of both. The courses in patriotism given during 
that great conflict started systematic study of civic 
problems that were very near to the lives of the boys 
and girls. In the last year or two it has been possible, 
therefore, to present the material of these pages to 
younger students than was formerly possible. Unfor- 
tunately, the study of the new social citizenship has 
been greatly handicapped by lack of materials and by 
a scarcity of good reference books or articles. This defect 
has been remedied in part by the great interest of stu- 
dents in themselves as citizens and in civic affairs and 
problems that are of especial significance to them. As 
the best is none too good, it is only right and fitting 
that our schools should give to every boy and every girl 
a course that will help each to understand better his 
own place in society and to appreciate how he must 
work with his fellows for his own gain and for civic better- 
ment. 

The author wishes to express his indebtedness for 
photographs furnished, and his appreciation of the help 
given, by the numerous teachers and friends who have 
sent him copies of courses of studies, have answered 
questionnaires, or^ have offered suggestions. He is espe- 
ciallv indebted to the following: Dr. Margaret S. Carhart, 
University of California, Southern Branch; Mr. Frank 
P. Goodwin, Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, formerly 
Director of Civic and Vocational Service in Cincinnati; 
Professor C. O. Davis, University of Michigan; Miss Mabel 
Hill, Dana Hall, Wellesley; Mr. J. G. Masters, Prin- 
cipal, Central High School, Omaha; Mr. D. E. Porter, 
Principal, High School of Commerce, Omaha; Lt. W. 



viii PREFACE 

D. Seay, Stanford University; Mr. W. F. Ewing, 
Principal, Pasadena High School; Miss Winnefred 
Millspaugh, Miss Mildred Wellborn, Miss Katherine 
Fleming, Mr. Leon Yakeley, Department of Social Science, 
Pasadena High School; Mr. Murray H. Hill, Pasadena 
High School; Mr. Roger Revelle, John Muir Junior 
High School, Pasadena; Miss Winifred Skinner, Librar- 
ian, Pasadena High School; Miss Blanche DeMotte, 
Pasadena Public Library; and his secretary, Miss Aileen 
V. Polhamus. 

In a general account it is impossible to cover with 
exactness and in detail very many of the courses, methods, 
and opportunities given in the numerous high schools, 
junior high schools, and communities of our country. 
The author will be very glad to receive suggestions of 
work done in any citizenship class or plans used by 
any school. 

Pasadena High School 

Pasadena, California 

January, 1922 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 



Introduction 



PAGE 
3 



PART I 

FOUNDATIONS OF CITIZENSHIP 

I. Personal Needs and Relationships 
II. General Needs and Group Organization 



9 

20 



III. 
IV. 



PART II 

CITIZENSHIP IN THE HOME 

The Child and the Youth in the Home 
Home Problems ..... 



43 
56 



PART III 

CITIZENSHIP IN THE SCHOOL 

V. Playgrounds and School Organization 

VI. Work of the Classroom 

VII. Group Methods and Organization 

VIII. General Student Organization 

IX. Literary and Athletic Organizations 

X. The Problem of the School Course 



71 

83 

99 

114 

129 

153 



PART IV 

THE CITIZEN AND BUSINESS 

XI. The Selection of a Vocation 

XII. School Preparation for Business 

XIII. Business and Society 

XIV. The Worker and Society 

ix 



169 

189 
205 
229 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 
XV. 
XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 



PART V 

THE CITIZEN IN RELATION 
TO GOVERNMENT 

Civil Liberty in General 
Social and Political Liberty 
The Protection of the Public 
Social Activities of Government . 
Financial Support of Government 
Organization of Our Governments 



page 
249 
261 
280 
298 
319 
333 



PART VI 

THE CITIZEN, AMERICA, AND 
THE WORLD 

XXI. The American People ...... 357 

XXII. The Community .374 

XXIII. International Relations ..... 389 

XXIV. Conclusion 408 

APPENDIX 415 

INDEX 433 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Tenement Home 

Substantial Farm House .... 
The Making of Bread .... 

Plowing 

Harvesting 

A Grain Elevator 

Transporting Wheat from New Orleans 

Milling Flour 

Mixing Dough 

Baking Bread 

Sale of Bread in Grocery- 
Unequal Distribution of Burdens (Cartoon) 
Interior of a Savings Bank 
Child Workers in a Tenement 
Teaching Children Useful Habits 
A Little Mother Caring for Younger Children 
Poor Home Surroundings in a Tenement District 
The Shack of a Poor Negro Family 
Cost of Living, 1914 and 1920— Chart 
May Day Celebration of School Students 
Class Organized as a Civics Club 
High School Students Holding an Election . 
Four-Minute Speakers' Organization, Manual 

School, Los Angeles, California . 
Assembly, Junior High School 
Grammar School Library .... 
Board of School Editors at Work 
Some Members of a High School Honor Society 
A School Gymnasium .... 

R. O. T. C. of a Western High School 



following 



PAGE 
13 

14 
23 



Arts 



High 



33 
35 

44 
46 
47 
61 
62 
63 
73 
86 
106 

108 
116 
130 
134 
136 
139 
142 



XI 



Xll 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Algebra Play, Pasadena High School, Pasadena, California . 

Print Shop, Manual Training High School Kansas City, 

Missouri ........ 

Science Laboratory, Shortridge High School, Indianapolis, 
Indiana ....... 

The Closing Hour of a Large Factory 

A Section Gang on a Railroad .... 

Switchboard in a Big Telephone Office 

Union Theological Seminary .... 

Agricultural Building, Michigan Agricultural College 
Linotype Room in School of Printing . 
Part-Time Work in the University of Cincinnati . 

Students in Laboratory 

Paving a Street 
Division of Labor in a Large Factory . 
The Largest Power House in the World 
Car of the San Francisco Municipal Railway 
Purifying Water — Large Distributing Plant 
Distribution of Packages in Post Office 
Corn Grown under Scientific Agriculture 
The Interstate Commerce Commission 
Women in a Factory .... 

Municipal Employment Bureau, Seattle, Washington 
Protected Machinery .... 

Crowd Protesting against Food Profiteering 
A Jury Trial ...... 

Infantry Attacking Germans during World War 

Interior of a Shack — A Poor Home for a Child 

The Republican Nominating Convention, Chicago, 1920 

A Polling Place on Election Day 

Police Quelling Rioters 

In a Juvenile Court . 

A Modern Fire Engine 

A False Measure 

An Undesirable Tenement 



PAGE 

157 

160 

164 
175 
179 
181 
184 
192 
195 
199 



213 
214 
215 
216 
217 
219 
224 
231 
237 
239 
252 
255 
258 
262 
273 
274 
281 
284 
286 
291 
293 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



A Model Tenement, Lower East Side, New York Citj 

An Advanced Class in Millinery 

Los Angeles High School, Los Angeles, California 

Open Air Corridor in a Hospital 

A Public Playground 

A Beautiful Civic Bridge . 

Civic Center, San Francisco, California 

New York Custom House . 

Citizens Paying Taxes 

Preamble of the Constitution 

The National Capitol at Washington . 

President Harding and Cabinet . 

White House with the Administration Offices 

The Justices of the Supreme Court, 1921 

State Capitol, Atlanta, Georgia . 

Assembly Chamber, Capitol, Albany, New York . 

Governor Stephens of California at his Desk 

Cook County Government Building, Chicago, Illinois 

City Hall, Waterbury, Connecticut 

Percentage of the Foreign Born, 1910 — Map 

Main Waiting Room, Immigration Station, Ellis Island 

Board of Last Resort on Admission of Immigrants 

Examining Applicant for American Citizenship 

Granting Final Citizenship Papers 

New York Town Hall ■ 

Social Center .... 

Community Pageant 
French Embassy, Washington, D. C. 
First Session of the League of Nations Assembly, Geneva, 
Switzerland ...... 

Office of the Secretary of State, Washington, D. C. 
An American Fleet in Review .... 



xni 

PAGE 

. 295 

. 300 

. 303 

. 307 

. 310 

. 314 

. 314 

. 323 

. 326 
334-335 

. 336 



339 
339 
341 
343 
344 
345 
346 
348 
361 
362 
367 
368 
369 
378 
384 
385 
390 

394 
400 
403 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

It is the author's hope that in this little book on the 
practice of citizenship, he has been able to organize as a 
unit the different phases of citizenship that have been 
studied. Not every class can find time for the discussion 
of each of these phases and few will care to discuss all of 
the problems presented in the questions. If the school 
course permits, the whole book should be covered in the 
order in which the different parts are presented. If a 
teacher wishes to use a different arrangement, Part V 
may be studied as soon as Part I has been completed, 
in order that the student may have a better compre- 
hension of his general rights and duties and of his position 
in society before he goes on with the study of more 
specific questions of citizenship. If the time is too short 
for the whole book and students have already made some 
study of government and of civic rights and duties, 
attention can be given chiefly or solely to Parts I to III, 
together with the first two chapters of Part IV, which 
are closely associated with school citizenship. 

Many schools may wish to devote a half year to civics of 
the type presented in this text, giving a second semester 
to a somewhat different type of civics. If, for example, 
such a school wishes to specialize on government in the 
second half year, Parts I to IV, inclusive, of this book 
may be studied as a general introduction, material in 
Parts V and VI being kept for reference in connection 
with a text on government. If a school that desires 
such a double course prefers to give attention to the 
work done within the city in which the school is located, 



XV 



xvi SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

the same plan may be followed, the class using for the 
second semester one of the excellent texts in community 
civics which emphasizes city government and devotes 
especial attention to the activities performed through 
the municipal authorities. 

A third type of double course may place particular 
stress on the training of the student in pre-vocational 
work. Since our courses in citizenship, that is, elementary 
courses in civics, were originally designed for the student 
who may fail to graduate from a high school, it is quite 
as important that he should have some insight into the 
world of business into which he must soon try to fit 
himself, as into the world of government with which 
he does not actively cooperate as a youth. With such a 
double course, the author would recommend that the 
materials of this book be studied in the order in which 
they are prepared until Part IV is reached. The material 
of Part IV may be used or not, as desired. In connection 
with the chapters of that part, or as a substitute for 
them, a careful study may be made of vocational civics. 
If time permits, the student can then go on with the 
material of Parts V and VI. 

In developing this course, the author and his colleagues 
were obliged to depend chiefly upon questions. He is 
not at all certain that the questions given at the ends 
of the chapters may not be a better basis of a course 
than the text itself; but he knows that his own students 
and the students of other teachers who have worked 
with him would have greatly appreciated material such 
as is given in these chapters, for study if not for recita- 
tion. In any course in elementary civics it has been cus- 
tomary to use a text not chiefly as a recitation book but 
largely as a guide for the study of local conditions and 
problems. The questions make it easier to adapt this 
text to such uses. But every school should gather 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS xvii 

together all available material on home conditions, school 
courses of study, the organization of the student body 
or other student groups, and work done in connection 
with different student activities. To maintain interest 
and get the best results, work should be developed from 
the standpoint of the student's interests. 

To a superficial observer it may seem that a large 
number of the questions at the ends of the chapters can 
be answered from the text. This is not the case. Only 
a few of them, those dealing with facts, can be answered 
in this way. Practically all of these questions have been 
used by the author with his own students. Few of them 
can be answered properly without a little additional 
study and thought. The majority of them may be 
considered as problems and studied from the problem 
angle. By studying them in groups, a fairly large num- 
ber may be made the bases of projects, which are after 
all not very different from the topic problems that most 
teachers have been using for many years. A good book 
on projects, for example, McMurry's Teaching by Projects, 
is full of suggestion. 

Although a course in citizenship must never lose sight 
of the group organizations of which we are citizen mem- 
bers and of the activities performed through these differ- 
ent groups, nevertheless, the first aim of the study of this 
type in citizenship is not true community civics, a difficult 
and advanced subject. As already stated in the Preface, 
it should really be a study of citizenship. It is the student 
who is the citizen, and he should see why a defect in the 
character of a member of a group makes him a defective 
citizen within that particular group. Moreover, it is 
the student who has rights and duties as a member of 
different groups to which he belongs. He must, therefore, 
know something about how each group is organized, 
what the group is trying to do, how it is trying to do it, 



xviii SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

and why it is attempting that work. Then he must try- 
to understand what is his place within that group or 
society, what the society does for him, that is, what 
rights he has as a member of it, what he must do in return, 
and what he ought in addition voluntarily to attempt. 
Only by the study and practice of citizenship within the 
groups of which he is actually and actively a member 
can the student understand its meaning. Only in these 
ways can we hope to develop a civic sense that will place 
stress upon responsibilities rather than upon rights, and 
upon opportunities for service rather than upon selfish 
advantage. We all despise the man who proclaims that 
the world owes him a living; we must help the student 
to despise the citizen, youth or adult, who takes the same 
view in regard to his civic relations. 

Within the field covered by this text, so far as the 
writer knows, there are no other comprehensive books. 
Practically nothing has ever been written on the most 
important phase of youthful civics, school citizenship. 
A list of titles usable by students is given, however, at 
the end of this topic. Many general facts, not given in 
the text but necessary for answering questions, can be 
secured from books found in any library. A single copy 
of such an inexpensive volume as The World Almanac 
gives many of them. Less general material must be 
obtained from other sources. Reference has been made 
to but one set of social surveys, those of Cleveland, 
although many others have been made, and the results of 
several have been published. The securing of material of a 
more or less local nature, whether relating to the individual 
school or the community, must be a slow and arduous 
process. If the school library keeps a series of scrap 
books or a shelf of reports, it may be possible, with the 
years, to gather valuable material. A faculty committee 
on student organizations could aid the library by getting 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS xix 

together information on each of the student groups. 
This information should give the names of officers, a 
copy of the constitution and by-laws, or a statement of 
general principles, if there is no constitution, and sum- 
mary reports of the work actually undertaken by each of 
these different organizations at different times during the 
year. A book of clippings taken from some local news- 
paper would be invaluable to supplement copies of the 
city charter and reports of the different departments of 
the local and state governments, as a guide to the work 
actually accomplished within the city or section. 

As indicated above, a study of citizenship among boys 
and girls is to a very great extent a study of character. 
With the adolescent, personal character can not easily 
be separated from civic character. It is highly desirable, 
therefore, that teachers should understand as well as 
possible the boy or girl as a human being. To be satis- 
factory, this investigation should include the physical, 
the intellectual, the emotional, and the moral or spiritual 
sides of his nature. A study of this kind is without end 
and can not be attempted with the hope of complete 
solution. A few suggestions, however, may be helpful. 
For the understanding of the human organism, the 
author does not know of any general book equal to Crile's 
Man, An Adaptive Mechanism. For the study of human 
instincts and emotions, primary and complex, and of 
man as a member of society, McDougall's Social Psy- 
chology is unequaled. Particular attention should prob- 
ably be paid to Chapters III to VII. A book very valuable 
to a teacher is Goddard's Psychology of the Normal and 
Subnormal. Interesting and stimulating material is given 
in Tracy's Psychology of Adolescence, Chapters IV to IX 
inclusive, especially Chapters VI, VII, and VIII. Ber- 
man's Glands Regulating Personality may be used with 
profit. On the brain, chapters XIX-XXI of Herrick's 



xx SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

Introduction to Neurology are excellent. Parmelee's The 
Science of Human Behavior is a valuable summary. Most 
of these books are fairly general and elementary, but 
they are probably more valuable to teachers than are the 
more comprehensive and advanced books on adolescence, 
human nature, and human behavior. Those who are 
interested and have the time would be well repaid if they 
examine the studies of the emotional nature of man 
given in Cannon's Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear, 
and Rage and in Crile's Origin and Nature of the Emotions. 
It is difficult to suggest a list of books that will be 
particularly usable by the student in connection with 
this text. The following, however, may be worth con- 
sidering : 

A Small Library 

Clark, The High School Boy. 

Dole, The New American Citizen. 

Giles, Vocational Civics. 

Lapp and Mote, Learning to Earn. 

Towne, Social Problems. 

Tufts, The Real Business of Living. 

Ellwood, Sociology and Modern Social Problems. 

Ross, The Old World in the New. 

Ashley, The New Civics. 

A longer list would include the books given above and 
would contain titles many of which are more valuable 
for teachers than for students. 

A Larger Library 

Kaye, Readings in Civil Government. 
Mangold, Problems of Child Welfare. 
Nearing, Woman and Social Progress. 
Gollomb, That Year at Lincoln High. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS xxi 

Curtis, Education through Play. 

McPheters, Cleaveland, and Jones, Citizenship Drama- 
tized. 
Reed, Junior Wage Earners. 
Leavitt and Brown, Elementary Social Science. 
Filene, Careers for Women. 
Snedden, The Problem of Vocational Guidance. 
Brewer, The Vocational Guidance Movement 
Bloomfield, Youth, School, and Vocation. 
Bloomfield, The Vocational Guidance of Youth. 
Bloomfield, Readings in Vocational Education. 
Abbott, Woman in Industry. 
Marriott, Uncle Sam's Business. 
Marriott, How Americans are Governed. 
Cleveland, Organized Democracy. 
Hart, Actual Government. 

Bryce, The American Commonwealth, abridged edition. 
Munro, The Government of the United States. 
Beard, American City Government. 
Dunn, Community Civics and Rural Life. 
Ross, What is America? 
Bailey, What is Democracy? 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

INTRODUCTION 

1. What is an American Citizen?— Modern man lives g^gg^ 

in groups. The largest of these groups we call the nation, ages 9f the 

When a child is born, he 1 becomes a member of the nation 

to which his parents belong. In his early years, he takes 

little interest in his membership in the nation, because he 

is dependent upon his parents for his very existence. 

As the child grows older, he has a larger share in the world 

outside of his own home and neighborhood. The boy or 

girl goes to school, and after school days are past, finds 

a business position. When he is twenty-one, he is ready 

to cast his first ballot. He has become a full-fledged 

member or citizen of the nation. 

Some people have imagined that a man is not a citizen ^ memter- 
until he takes an active part in the work of governing the ship. 
country, but this is an entirely wrong idea. Citizenship 
is membership. The child is a member or citizen from 
his earliest years, and his rights as a member are protected 
at all ages, especially at the time when they most need 
protection. When the child attends school, he is being 
prepared by society for a life career, not as a Robinson 
Crusoe, separated from his fellows, but as a member of 

society. 

2. The Nature and Basis of Citizenship.— The term Extensive 

1 . . , use ol term 

citizenship is ordinarily limited to membership in the citizenship. 

lAlthough the masculine pronoun is used almost exclusively here and 
later in this book, the statements include girls as well as boys, women 
as well as men, 



INTRODUCTION 



Needs, re- 
lationships, 
and group 
membership, 



Citizenship 
in different 
groups. 



Study of 
group mem- 
bership. 



nation. There is no reason, however, why it may not 
be used in connection with membership in any group 
that is civic in character. It may, therefore, be an affair 
of the family, of the school, or of the community. To a 
pupil, school citizenship is fully as important as is citizen- 
ship in the nation. 

As members of any group, we have relationships with 
other members and with the group as a whole. We do 
something for them, and they, in return, do many things 
for us. What we do, what they do, and what the group 
does depends upon needs which we have, which they have, 
and which the group has. In the study of American citi- 
zenship, it is necessary, therefore, that we begin with 
needs. Next we must study the relationships we have 
with other people, which grow out of those needs. Then 
we must discover how each group is organized and how 
its members work together in order to supply some special 
set of needs, not necessarily of their own but of other 
persons in their nation or in other nations. 

3. What a Study of Citizenship Includes. — To under- 
stand American citizenship, a careful study should be 
made of the home, in which membership is important, 
particularly in early childhood and youth. A course in 
American citizenship should include an especially careful 
examination of school citizenship, because the school is 
playing a very large part in the present life of every 
schoolboy and schoolgirl, as well as in the preparation of 
all pupils for later work among. their fellows. It is desir- 
able that it include some study of the part which every 
individual may have, and should have, in the world of 
business. It should discuss the governments under 
which we live and the work carried on by public officials 
of city, state, and nation. 

If we are to make a study of American citizenship, our 
course should make clear to us the position that we occupy 



INTRODUCTION 5 

as members in each of the numerous groups to which we 
belong. To do this we must understand our relationships 
with other members of each group, the rights that we have 
within that group, and the duties that we must perform 
for the other members. We must understand that these 
rights and duties are not enjoyed or exercised chiefly 
through the government, because they are not necessarily 
political in character. They are connected with every 
group with which we are now associated or shall be 
connected in the future. 

4. How Citizenship is Acquired. — As citizenship is a Acquisition 
very important matter, it is defined in the Constitution ^^or 
of the United States. According to the fourteenth tion. 
amendment, "All persons born or naturalized in the 
United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, 
are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein 
they reside." We see from this statement that citizen- 
ship may be acquired either by birth or by naturalization. 1 
Most citizens of the United States are members of the 
American nation because they were born in this country, 
but a very large number are natives of other countries 
who migrated to America. Foreigners are allowed to 
become members of this country by taking out citizenship 
papers; we call this process naturalization. 

M290 



PART I 

FOUNDATIONS OF CITIZENSHIP 



CHAPTER I 
PERSONAL NEEDS AND RELATIONSHIPS 

1. General 

a. Individual needs and personal civic relationships 

b. Direct and indirect relationships 

c. One-sided and two-sided relationships 

2. Rights and duties 
a. Childhood rights to life and health 
o. The right to favorable surroundings 

c. Childhood obligations 

d. Change from one-sided to two-sided personal relation- 
ships 

e. Rights and duties as opposite sides of fully developed 
relationships 

Conclusion 

a. Rights of the citizen 

b. Duties of the citizen 

General 

5. Individual Needs and Personal Civic Relation- Extent of our 
ships.— Human needs are so various that no individual P^ s d ° s n ^ d 
supplies himself with more than a few of the things wants, 
necessary to his existence and comfort. In all probability, 
no one of the articles of clothing that he wears has been 
made with his own hands, and very little of the food that 
he eats has been grown by himself. The house in which 
he lives has been built by one set of men, painted by 
another, and provided with plumbing by a third. His 
carpets have probably come from one state, his 
furniture from a second, and his pictures from a third. 
His everyday needs and wants have been supplied by the 
exertions of a multitude of workers, some of whom live in 

9 



10 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



How rela- 
tionships 
grow out of 
needs. 



What con- 
stitutes a 
direct rela- 
tionship. 



America, but many of whom reside in foreign lands. 
Although these articles satisfy personal needs, and many 
of them are necessities without which he would suffer 
greatly or die, they are not furnished to him unless 
something is given in return. If the person who uses the 
goods is not self-supporting, someone else must assume 
the burden of paying for the articles. 

Since we do not depend upon ourselves for most of the 
things that we need, and since our needs are exceedingly 
numerous, we have relationships with all the people who 
make or provide the goods that we are using. We are 
dependent upon the people who grow the food or manu- 
facture the articles or transport them from the place 
where they are produced to our own community. We 
therefore have relationships (1) with the persons who give 
these articles to us, (2) with those other persons from whom 
our parents or friends purchased them, and (3) with those 
more distant producers who at some time and in some 
place helped to make these goods. With each one of 
these numerous persons we have civic relations because 
they do something for us, and presumably we do something 
for them. 1 

6. Direct and Indirect Relationships. — It is worth our 
while to distinguish between two classes of persons with 
whom we have relations. With some of these people we 
come face to face, as, for example, with members of our 
family or of our class in school. With these people we 
have direct relations because we deal with them personally 
and directly. Although we have direct relations, we 
must not imagine that we necessarily give them as much 
as they give us. A mother does for a little child far 
more than the child can possibly repay, and yet the 
relationship is direct. 

1 When other people pay our bills, they are the persons who do some- 
thing for the many workers who produce the goods that we use day 
by day. 



GENERAL 11 

We have indirect relations with any one with whom we Why most 

relation- 
deal indirectly, that is, one with whom we do not come ships are 

face to face, for example, with the owner of a grocery store 

from whose clerks we buy flour, vegetables, and canned 

goods; and we have relations even more indirect with the 

miller who ground the flour. Our connection is still more 

remote and indirect with the farmer who grew the wheat 

that was ground into flour. We have relationships with 

all of these men because we depend upon them. 

7. One-sided and Two-sided Relationships. — When a why most 
man buys or sells anything, it is supposed that he will are a two-* iPS 
receive an equivalent of what he gives or will give an slded - 
equivalent of what he receives. When one youth or 
adult has dealings with another in other fields than busi- 
ness, that which is given ought to correspond to that which 
is received. For example, the right of a student in school 
to good teaching means not only that the teacher should 
teach the subject well, but that the student should do 
his share, that is, should perform his duty by studying 
his lesson in advance and by giving attention in class. 
Each gives value for value. In most relationships, 
accordingly, we can enjoy advantages or rights if we 
accept the obligations which go with those rights. Almost 
every relationship, therefore, being two-sided, creates some- 
thing that we may call a right and demands in return some- 
thing that we may call an obligation. The two are insepa- 
rable, for the right of one is the obligation of the other. 

Some relationships are very one-sided. Most of those £gadvan- nd 
in the family are of this character. Every mother does t ^ ges i 9 f , 
many things for her young son or daughter without relation- 
expecting or receiving much in return. In relation to s ipa 
her children her rights are far less numerous than her 
duties. For that very reason, a young child in dealing 
with either of his parents has many more rights than 
obligations. This single example shows us, however, 



12 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

that if one of two persons who have dealings with each 
other has an unusually large number of rights, the other 
has a correspondingly large number of duties. Only the 
very young or the very old have any right to expect one- 
sided relationships, which bring them many advantages 
and few obligations. 

Rights and Duties 

Why a child 8. Childhood Rights to Life and Health. — As suggested 
more e righS y above, for the boy or girl, citizenship deals more with 
than an rights than with duties; for the older citizen, it is con- 
cerned chiefly with obligations. The reason is that the 
needs of the child are great in proportion to his ability to 
help others. In childhood and even in youth he is 
dependent on those with whom he is associated. 
Civic im- When a child is born, he becomes not simply a citizen 

portance 01 m 

good health f the United States, but, what is more directly valuable 

homes. to him during his early years, a member of a home. To a 

large extent the rights of the child are his rights in the 

home. He is entitled to a good start in life. Two of the 

greatest rights of childhood are the rights to a fair degree 

of health and to a place in a real home. The child who 

lacks either of these is deprived of a large part of his 

heritage as an American citizen. If he comes into the 

world weak, imperfectly developed, with 'constitutional 

tendencies to disease, he is not only handicapped in his 

personal fight with life, but he is denied the opportunity 

of giving to others the help and support that should be 

offered by a normally healthy child, youth, or adult. 

Usually good health is an important element of good 

citizenship. 

P /the C uttie 9 * The Ri & ht t0 Favorable Surroundings.— Whatever 

child by the ma y be his physical and mental heritage, the little child 

mimity C , 0] has the right to clean, healthy, favorable surroundings. 

Nation? 1 "* Tne hr>me, the community, and the nation must each do its 



RIGHTS AND DUTIES 



13 



share in guarding this right of childhood. Lack of 
cleanliness and tidiness may be due to the negligence of 
the home maker. After all, the ignorance and careless- 
ness of mothers may be a minor cause of infant mortality. 
Much more important are unsanitary surroundings — 
sunless tenements and filthy alleys — failures of the com- 
munity rather than of the family. The high death rate 
among infants in the slum is caused chiefly by over- 
crowding, poor milk, and scarcity of fresh air — in these 
respects the public has failed to protect its children. 
Much has been done in our cities to give the babies of 




Courtesy National Child Labor Committee 

Tenement Home 

the slum a " fighting chance," but society owes them 
even more careful guardianship in order that they may 
have health as well as life. 

In later years, the home, the community, and the nation gJJd^nviron- 
must furnish surroundings which make it possible for the n^taaid^ 
child to be a healthy, honest, and intelligent citizen, tunities. 



14 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



The home must be clean and it should be cheerful. It 
should be a real home in which the members of the family 
live in harmony and give the child and youth proper 
training and discipline. The community has not done 
enough when good schools are provided; it must furnish 
a decent moral atmosphere. The state and nation must 
make good laws and encourage a public sentiment which 
demands a square deal. All youth must be taught how 
to know right and to avoid wrong in order that they may 




Substantial Farm House 



Why the 
child can 
not repay 
those who 
help him. 



grow to manhood and womanhood with high ideals, 
honest standards of conduct, and minds not warped by 
prejudice and hate. 

10. Childhood Obligations. — In spite of the many 
things that are done for the welfare and benefit of the 
child, little is expected of him in return. He can not pay 
for the food that he eats or for the clothing that he wears. 



RIGHTS AND DUTIES 15 

He can not make any complete and suitable return for the 
training that is given to him, or for the good advice that 
is offered, or, most important of all, for the love that is 
showered upon him. 

In return for the things that he receives, the child can SdfcSf 
show the right spirit. When his parents or even his older do. 
brothers or sisters try to teach him anything, he can at 
least learn willingly and express his thanks for the kind- 
ness shown him. One must not expect too much grati- 
tude from the child who is helped by his elders, for even 
adults are not always gracious about accepting advice. 
Love, however, the child can return in some measure, 
although his love is chiefly affection, without much 
unselfishness or sacrifice. 

11. Change from One-sided to Two-sided Personal 
Relationships. — Most young people depend upon their 
parents for food, clothing, and shelter long after they 
cease to be dependent in many other respects. Until 
they have finished their education and gone into the 
larger world, they can not expect to be completely self- 
supporting. Few care, however, to have a sense of depen- 
dence upon someone else. Especially is this true of boys in interest of 
their dealings with one another, for in many ways boys m °Jking the 
are anxious to be grown up as soon as possible. They change early, 
dislike to take from their friends favors which they 
can not repay. Unfortunately, they do not apply the 
same reasoning to their parents or to those from 
whom in childhood they received much, giving little 
in return. 1 For some reason, many girls are troubled 
even less by obligation to others. Although girls are Attitude of 

, t i ... ill g ir ls toward 

often helpful in the home, nevertheless it is probably the change, 
true that they have been slower than their brothers in 

i It is only fair, therefore, that everyone should have opportunity to 
examine those relationships of his which in the past were one-sided, but 
of which he does not always stop to think. It is probable that when 
he studies these old, one-sided relationships, he will be anxious to change 
them as soon as possible into more evenly balanced relationships. 



16 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

becoming independent. This may be due in part to 
the fact that until recent years mature girls and even 
women have depended very greatly upon the wage earner 
of the family. 
Relationship 12. Rights and Duties as Opposite Sides of Fully 
duties to Developed Relationships. — When a boy grows to man- 
each ot er. k ooc ^ kg ver y soon i s obliged to give as much as he receives. 

As shown above, rights and duties are very closely inter- 
related. We might almost say that, for an adult, where 
there is no obligation or duty, there will be no right, 
because there is nothing to which the right corresponds. 
The person who gives a service to an employer may 
demand a wage, whereas the idler or the unemployed man 
has no such right. The autoist who continually breaks 
traffic regulations ought not to claim damages if his car 
is injured by that of another who fails to give the proper 
signals or cuts a corner. 

Difficulties Simple though this idea is that needs lead to relation- 
al seeing ^ ° 

the practical ships and that relationships are two-sided, with rights on 
between the one hand and duties on the other, even some adults 
duties an d° n0 ^ seem to understand why they can not have rights 
without having obligations. Many other adults, who do 
understand fully that if they have rights, they must 
assume obligations, do not always realize that the rights 
and the obligations go together, because they both grow 
out of the same relationship of one person with another. 
Nor do they realize that in order to have more rights 
they must be willing to accept and to fulfil a larger number 
of obligations. The student who works faithfully deserves 
a greater reward than his indolent neighbor. A bachelor 
can not ask for the joys of family life with none of the 
expenses and other burdens of a home. Let us notice 
again that an obligation is not arbitrary; it is simply the 
duty which one must perform in order that he may enjoy 
the corresponding right. 



RIGHTS AND DUTIES 17 

13. Conclusion— Rights of the Citizen.— If we think ^fch mtst 
of a citizen as a member of a nation, we obtain at once a be protected, 
clear idea of his position. The very fact that he is 
a member gives him many rights that every member of a 
group enjoys. The group must look after his right to 
life. The protection of health is one phase of the pro- 
tection of life. The right to work and the right to play 
are among the inestimable benefits which society should 
confer upon its members. A man has also the right to 
protection from dangers, such as epidemics of disease, 
robbery, unjust prices or wages, or arbitrary and inefficient 
government. 

The right to associate with others is one which a citizen ^ p ^ s al of 
should enjoy and should exercise. No person may claim association, 
all of the advantages of citizenship and then live in seclu- 
sion and do no work with his fellows. Because society 
has organized groups, for example, the family, the com- 
munity, and the nation, the individual has his place and 
share within each of these groups. He has the right to 
cooperate with his parents, with his neighbors, with his 
fellow townsmen, and with his fellow citizens of the nation. 

The rights of one individual should not be greater than ^h^pro-^ 
those of another in the same situation. If one citizen is one means 
to enjoy certain rights and privileges, he must concede as for all ] 
much to others. The only way in which he could secure 
additional privileges would be to deny them to others; 
and that would be contrary to the very principles under- 
lying these rights. 

14. Duties of the Citizen.— With each of the rights f^ e c f^ t 
mentioned in the preceding section there must go some be neglected. 
corresponding obligation. From the public point of view 
the life of one citizen is no more valuable than that of 
another. In olden days it was customary to take a life 
for a life, but the modern idea is not that one life taken 
compensates for another life lost, but that one life given 



18 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

in service permits others to enjoy life in greater abundance. 
The right to good health can not be claimed if the indi- 
vidual risks his health continually and does not do those 
things necessary to keep in good physical condition. 
Since public health and sanitation require the cooperation 
of all individuals, the one who claims the benefits of pub- 
lic protection must do his share in every way that he can. 
We may not like to be kept out of school when suffering 
from whooping cough, measles, or similar maladies, but 
the health and welfare of all demand our exclusion. 
The place jf one i s to associate with his fellows, he must not only 

that one . 

must fill in be a fit fellow with whom to associate, but he should be 
such a citizen that others will gain much from acquaint- 
ance and friendship with him. If he needs, as all of us 
do, the cooperation of those with whom he lives and 
works, he must expect to contribute what he can. As 
President Woodrow Wilson declared in a proclamation 
dealing with the first draft for the American army in 
1917: "All must pursue one purpose. The nation needs 
all men; but it needs each man, not in the field that will 
most pleasure him, but in the endeavor that will best 
serve the common good." 

References i 

1. Making citizens of immigrants. Beard, Woman's Work in 
Municipalities, 170-198. 

2. Pure food for babies. Bruere, R. W., Harper's Magazine, 122 
(1911), 519-521. 

3. Life in the slums. Rns, The Battle with the Slum, 9-35. 

4. Rights to exemption from arbitrary rule by our govern- 
ments. Beard, American Citizenship, 40-52. 

5. Some primary civic duties. Root, The Citizen's Part in 
Government, 5-31. 

*Willoughby, Rights and Duties of American Citizenship. 

* Ashley, The American Federal State, 212-218, 456-470, 553-558. 

*Brewer, American Citizenship. 

*Bryce, The Hindrances to Good Citizenship. 

*Hadley, Freedom and Responsibility. 

*Primarily for teachers. 
Tor full names and complete titles see appendix A 



RIGHTS AND DUTIES 19 

Questions 

1. Name five commodities which satisfy different types of human 
needs, and give some idea where each may be obtained. Show 
why our needs lead to relationships. Name three different sets of 
persons with whom we have relationships. 

2. Explain what is meant by direct relationships. When is a 
relationship indirect with someone in our own community? Why 
are most indirect relationships with people at a distance? Illus- 
trate direct relationships with individuals and with groups. Do 
the same for indirect relationships. Explain direct and indirect 
relationships that are political, economic, and social, giving two 
examples of each, if possible. 

3. Why should a normal relationship be two-sided? Show that 
rights are only the advantages which we have from relationships. 
If we have rights, why should we assume or meet the correspond- 
ing obligations? Explain why the relationships of a child to 
almost any other person are one-sided and for his advantage; in 
other words, why he has more rights than obligations. 

4. Name some of the rights of a child. Why should he have 
these rights, and from what different persons or groups may he 
demand them? Distinguish between what the home, the com- 
munity, and the nation does for the health and development of the 
child. 

5. Name several important rights and the corresponding duties. 
Explain why a man has more or fewer rights than a boy. Does an 
employer ordinarily have more or less numerous duties than an 
employee? Which man will do more injury to society if he is dis- 
honest? 

6. Discuss the following principles briefly: Needs lead to 
relationships; Normal relationships are two-sided; 'Rights and 
duties are very closely interrelated"; Rights and duties are 
inseparable, for the right of one person is the obligation of the other 
party to the relationship. 



CHAPTER II 



The inter- 
dependence 
of people 
in groups. 



GENERAL NEEDS AND GROUP ORGANIZATION 

1. The small group and its relations 

a. How people are organized in groups 

b. How groups work together 

c. Our direct dependence on groups 

d. Our indirect dependence on distant groups 

2. Public needs and government 

a. How public needs lead to government 

b. General nature of government 

c. Need of written constitutions 

d. The state, its activities, and its authority 

e. Work of the state and its limitations 

3. Some economic needs and society 

a. Teamwork to satisfy needs through government 

b. Teamwork in other fields 

c. Cooperation in the building of a house 

d. Cooperation in production 

e. Buyer and seller — markets 

/. Business organization of yesterday and to-day 
g. Unity of social organization 
Conclusion 

The place of the individual in group organization 

The Small Group and Its Relations 

15. How People are Organized in Groups. — No man 

or woman in America to-day lives exclusively for himself; 
no man or woman lives exclusively by himself. We are 
not Robinson Crusoes existing on distant islands and 
separated from our fellows; for, however solitary a life 
any one of us may live, he is in the midst of people and is 
dependent upon a host of others who aid him and whom 

20 



SMALL GROUP AND ITS RELATIONS 21 

he in turn aids. We are so accustomed to being with 
people, to acting together, and to helping each other in 
hundreds of ways that, if we do not give the matter care- 
ful consideration, we may deny our dependence upon 
others and the dependence of others upon us. When we 
do think, we realize that the people about us are organized 
in groups, each group existing for a particular purpose and 
doing a particular work. 

This school class of which we are members is such a J group? 3 as 
group. It is not made up thoughtlessly; it has been 
organized carefully, with a teacher at its head and a large 
number of boys and girls, or possibly only boys or only 
girls, in order to do one thing — to help us gain a better 
education. 

The whole school is a combination of such classes and J s h a n sc h r ? 01 
groups, which may not be very numerous, or which, on ganized 
the contrary, may include hundreds of different class 
groups. It is a true group in itself, by itself, and for 
itself. This single illustration shows us that a group 
exists for a definite purpose, that it is not made up in a 
haphazard way, of anyone and everyone, but only of 
persons interested in a definite object, and that in order 
to be organized, each group must have definite and fairly 
permanent sets of members, with leaders. 

16. How Groups Work Together.— Not only is each g^g^ 
of the thousands and hundreds of thousands of groups of group 

. ,. , cooperation. 

which exist in America to-day organized lor a particular 
purpose, but each member of any group has dealings with 
every other member; and those dealings or relationships 
are fairly definite and permanent in character. They 
are definite because they grow out of a definite need. 
A pupil in school is in a class for the purpose of learn- 
ing. As he wants to have certain information, knowl- 
edge, and skill, he joins a large number of other boys 
and girls in the formation of a class, because a class 



22 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Inter- 
dependence 
of groups 
and their 
members. 



Some groups 
of which we 
are mem- 
bers. 



under the direction of a teacher is an excellent means of 
securing the desired knowledge and training. The worker 
in a shop needs the wages that the employer gives him, 
just as the employer needs the services of the worker in 
order to produce the goods that he is making. More- 
over, the employer produces not for himself but for 
a consumer, and the consumer or customer buys not 
because he wishes to dispose of his money, but because 
he needs or wants the article that the employer and 
worker have produced. Back of everything that we do, 
therefore, is the need or want which we are trying to 
supply — a need or want which we can not supply by 
ourselves and for ourselves. 

17. Our Direct Dependence on Groups. — We speak of 
American society, that is, the American people, as being 
organized in a very complex way; but the expression 
means little to us. To understand how complex present 
day social organization is, we must keep in mind the fact 
that we are members of a large number of groups and 
that each of these groups is well organized and has 
numerous relations with the others. We must remember 
further, that each member is likely to have important and 
numerous relationships, not only with other members of 
his group, but possibly with distant groups. 

It might be interesting for each member of this class to 
name several groups of which he is regularly a member. 
He would have no hesitation in naming first, the family, 
secondly, the school. Each is a member of the city or 
township in which he lives. Each is probably a citizen 
of this, our great country. There would be more hesita- 
tion in naming other organizations, because not all of 
us would be members of the same type of group. In high 
schools that have student organization, each is, or ought 
to be, a member of the student body, and possibly of 
some school club or society. Some are members of 



SMALL GROUP AND ITS RELATIONS 23 

Christian Endeavor societies and the Y. M. C. A.; some 
of tennis clubs or other boys' or girls' societies. The number 
of groups of which a boy or girl is a member is small, 
however, compared with that to which an adult belongs, 
especially the business man. 

We have direct face to face relationships, however, Other groups 

with which 

with other groups to which we can not belong. Probably we have 
not a week passes in which we do not ride on the street relationships, 
cars, or use a telephone, or make purchases of groceries, or 
pencils, or candy. We do these things because we need 
to be transported from place to place or because we, or 
others associated with us, require the goods that we 
purchase. In order to supply these needs, we have had 
direct relationships with the street car company through 
the conductor, with the telephone company through the 
operator, with a store through a clerk, or with a church 
organization through the minister or a singer. 

18. Our Indirect Dependence on Distant Groups. — General. 
For the satisfaction of our needs we depend not simply 
upon these individuals or groups with which we have 
direct relationships, but upon thousands of other persons 
at a distance with whom our relationships are indirect. 
If we consider simply the commodities that we use each 
day in our homes, we are amazed at the number of per- 
sons with whom we are indirectly associated and upon 
whom, in a sense, we are dependent. Even if we think 
of just one person as producing each of these commodities, 
we should still have relationships with a very large num- 
ber of people. 

A few examples will show us more clearly how society Indirect 

_ dependence 

to-day is woven into a network of inter -relations hips. Our for articles 
shoes were made, probably, in a distant city and passed 
through hundreds of hands in the process of manufac- 
ture, transportation, and sale. Our shoe laces probably 
were handled by dozens of people in addition to the 



24 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

persons who produced the materials out of which the 
laces were made. One does not need to know much about 
the manufacture of cloth to realize that there are a great 
, many processes in the production of the raw material, in 
the spinning, weaving, and other steps which must be 
completed before the cloth is finished. If we consider 
for a moment the many other workers who handle the 
cloth in transportation, in the stores of the wholesaler 
and retailer, or in the manufacture of clothing, we can 
see with how many people we touch hands, as it were, 
for any garment that we use. 
mStffoid 16 ^ e com< d repeat this study with every article we eat. 
relationships Bread is the commonest form of food, but it may lead us 
represents, to the Dakota wheat fields, to the middle-western grain 
elevators and flour mills, as well as to the railway com- 
pany, the baker, the groceryman, and the deliveryman. 
The people engaged directly in the making of bread do 
not include innumerable others, upon whom the makers 
of that bread were dependent — the men who made the 
plow used by the farmer, the men who built the mill or 
ground the mill stones, or made the machinery used in the 
mill, the men who made the sacks or the barrels in which 
the flour is kept, the men who built the railroad, the 
locomotives, or the cars that transport the grain and flour, 
or the men who mined the coal used for power. 
Complexity We ne ed not multiply instances; certainly enough has 
civic organi- been said to show how infinitely complex is the business 
organization of America to-day. Almost as complex is 
the political and quite as complex is the social organiza- 
tion of this United States of America. 

Public Needs and Government 

?e e eds r tnat 19, How Public Needs Lead to Government.— Besides 

are satisfied food, clothing, shelter, and other personal requirements, 
action. there are many things which we need and which can not 




Plowing 




Harvesting 
Wheat 




A Grain Elevator 




Copyright, Underwood & Underwood 

Transporting Wheat from New Orleans 

The Making 




Copyright, Underwood & Underwood 

Milling Flour 




Mixing Dough 



of Bread 




Baking Bread 




Sale of Bread in Grocery 



Bread 






PUBLIC NEEDS AND GOVERNMENT 25 

be bought from other people. In order that we may go 
from our homes to the stores where goods are sold, there 
must be highways, which will, of course, cross the property 
of many persons. The property owners or public repre- 
sentatives must decide upon points to be connected and 
agree upon a route to be followed. In order that they 
may use the highway to the best advantage, it must be 
constructed in the same way throughout its entire length. 
A road which, even for a short distance, is nothing but a 
narrow footpath is useless for automobiles, and therefore is 
valueless for trade of any importance. 

More necessary than roads is protection for ourselves Why eon- 
and our property. If some villain steals our food or i s necessary 
burns our houses, we shall suffer personal want; nor can J° r n P ofnfe 
we properly protect ourselves if obliged to depend ^ prop ~ 
exclusively on our own efforts. Have you ever stopped to 
think what would happen if every person from whom 
anything is stolen were obliged to hunt up the offender, 
and, if the thief could be found, to punish him for his 
misdeed? In how many cases would it be possible to 
learn who the guilty person was? How long would it be 
before thieves would seize property and murderers would 
destroy life without any risk whatever to themselves? 
Is it not clear that life and property can not be safe 
unless the members of a community organize to protect 
themselves against wrongdoers? Not only must they 
organize for this purpose, but if serious dangers are to be 
avoided, they must have for their protection some uniform 
rules which people must obey. Furthermore, since what 
is everybody's business is nobody's business, certain 
members of the community must see that the rules or 
laws are obeyed and that lawbreakers are brought to 
justice and punished. 

These are but twoexamples of the manypublic needsthat Public needs 

^ . i i t_ an< 3 personal 

must be met if we are to continue to live and do business, needs. 



26 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

Our property will be of little value to us if any one may 
take it without risk of punishment. We shall not 
long enjoy the privilege of purchasing what is necessary 
for the satisfaction of our personal needs, unless there are 
laws under which business may be transacted. In 
short, public needs must be satisfied before we can satisfy 
our personal needs. Indeed, there can be no civilization 
such as that in the United States to-day, unless we may 
live and care for our personal interests in security. This 
security can be preserved in no other way than by a 
permanent and responsible set of organizations, our 
governments, which exist for trie purpose of satisfying 
our public or political needs. 
Usual divi- 20. General Nature of Government. — The govern- 
government, ments which look after general public needs are local, as 
those of cities, towns, and counties, state, and national. 
Each group has its organization of officials, small and 
simple if public needs are few, or large and complex if 
needs are numerous, as in a city such as greater New York 
or in the national government. These sets of officials 
represent the political organizations or governments of 
their respective groups. We speak of the machinery and 
activities of these political organizations as government. 
The depart- Almost all of our governments are divided into three 
government, departments. One of these is composed of representa- 
tives from territorial districts. This is the legislative 
department, which makes the laws. There is usually but 
one person at the head of the executive department, which 
enforces the laws. Frequently the members of the execu- 
tive department simply apply the law or attend to other 
duties that are called administrative. The judges make 
up the judicial department, which interprets the laws. 1 

1 These officials constitute the machinery of government ^ and their 
work constitutes the activities of government. As these governments 
represent us and should satisfy our public needs, they must possess 
sufficient authority to accomplish their work. 






PUBLIC NEEDS AND GOVERNMENT 



27 



The work of our government does not consist solely of 
activities that we call political. To be sure, there must 
be laws that specify not only who may vote and what 
powers the government shall have, but, in addition, there 
must be some organization, clothed with authority, that 
will protect our rights to make economic contracts and 
to hold property. The government does this just as it 
protects our social rights (§§197-199) 

21. Need of Written Constitutions. — In the United 
States we speak of our government as democratic. By 
democratic or popular government we mean that the 
people decide what kind of government they shall have, 
organize each government, and select the most important 
officials. In order that the people may have such govern- 
ments as they need and want, and in order that those 
governments shall not interfere with the rights of the 
citizens, the people have made for themselves important 
fundamental laws called written constitutions. 

The constitutions may be amended to meet new needs 
of the people, but their rigidity prevents hasty change. 
A constitution can not be altered by any government, 
nor can any government make any change in its own 
powers. All changes in an old constitution must be 
made by the people, who established that constitution and 
who may abolish the old constitution and have a new 
one in its place. 

22. The State, Its Activities and Its Authority.— The 
largest political societies with which we are familiar 
to-day are the different nations 1 , such as France, Great 
Britain, and the United States. It is necessary that each 
of these societies should have a group organization of 
the whole nation for self-preservation and self -protection, 
and to look after all other common public interests of 

1 A nation is a large group of people, independent of any other similar 
group, living within a definite territory, under a single government, and 
having common ideals on all important subjects. 



Varied 
activities of 
government. 



Importance 
of a popular 
fundamental 
law. 



Popular 
amendment 
of consti- 
tutions. 



Activities 
of the state. 



28 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Authority 
of the state. 



The work 
of a state. 



the people. Such a political organization of an independ- 
ent nation living within a definite area and controlling 
its affairs through a central government, aided by other 
necessary governments, is called a state. 1 

In order that the people of a country shall be held 
together as a united body and continue to do the public 
work for which the group was organized, it is necessary 
that the state shall possess sufficient authority to protect 
its people and do its work thoroughly. In modern 
nations this authority must come from the people them- 
selves and must be respected by all of the people, even by 
those who do not wish to obey the laws. Moreover, the 
power or authority of the whole group acting as a unit 
must be greater than the power of any of the smaller 
groups within it. For example, a nation like the United 
States must have authority over the commonwealths, 
the states, of which it is composed. However, if the work 
to be done is not work of a general or national nature, 
that is, if the tasks are of a somewhat local character, 
each commonwealth may be left to act in the way it 
thinks best. Any social or economic group, such as a 
family or a business corporation or a railway system, must 
observe the rules laid down by the nation, acting through 
its united political organization, the state. 

23. Work of the State and Its Limitations. — First, the 
work of the state through its government is protective. 
It protects the nation from outside dangers. It guards the 
nation also from internal perils by protecting the just rights 
of individual members and of smaller groups within the 
society. Second, the work of the state is regulative. 
It decides what relations individuals shall have to other 
individuals, as parent to child, or as employer to employee. 
It also decides what shall be the relations of an individual 

1 A state is sovereign, that is, it is supreme over its governments and 
over any other group existing within it. A state is a political organiza- 
tion', a nation is a united -people. 



PUBLIC NEEDS AND GOVERNMENT 29 

to any group, as that of a voter to a political party or a 
taxpayer to a city. It regulates relations between groups, 
as the relations of labor and capital. Third, a state's 
work is directive when it undertakes to promote the 
interests of the whole nation, or of any group, or of any 
member. Protective tariffs, public libraries, and agri- 
cultural experiment stations are examples of tasks 
undertaken for the welfare of certain groups. 

Our governments must control many more actions of Limits of 
the citizens than formerly, not simply to promote their of govem- 
welfare, but to give them protection. For instance, no men ' 
one doubts the right of the government to pass and 
enforce all proper measures for the health of the com- 
munity. This may lead in crowded cities to regulations 
that are very obnoxious to individual householders. 
Dealers may be obliged to submit to inspection and con- 
fiscation of goods which might injure members of the 
community. Factories are continually under supervision 
to see that the health of operatives is in nowise endangered. 
Too little supervision, like too much, is a mark of poor 
government. 

Some Economic Needs and Society 

24. Teamwork to Satisfy Needs Through Govern- Government 
ment. — Good government is absolutely necessary to any portunity 
people. Unless order is kept, little can be done. Unless glver ' 
the right laws are made and are enforced against law- 
breakers, the ordinary citizen can not live and do business 
in security. Government, however, does not plan to do 
many things for us; it gives us opportunity to do them 
for ourselves. Most of the real business of living is 
outside of the sphere of government. 

Nevertheless, government enters in some way into Action 
almost every part of our daily lives. Because it is ready bie by 
to punish offenders, we can walk on the streets without s° vernment ' 



30 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Govern- 
ment as an 
example of 
group 
action. 



Team- 
work is 
universal 



being injured by those who may wish to do us harm. 
Because our property is protected, the criminal who 
steals or destroys is likely to be caught and punished 
severely. When a contract is made, the government 
insists that the agreement shall be kept by both parties. 
The milk that we drink comes from a dairy which public 
officials have inspected. For this reason we know that 
the cows are healthy, that the dairy is sanitary, and that the 
milk is delivered in clean bottles. The street cars upon 
which we ride to school belong to a system under govern- 
ment supervision. Before the railway company may raise 
its fares, public permission must be obtained. At all times 
it is supposed to furnish respectable service to the public. 
These are a few examples of ways in which the govern- 
ment is working for us and with us. 

After all, government is only an instrument or agency, 
created by us to do the general work which is needed in 
the community, state, or nation, for the benefit of all. 
In organizing government, and in helping our govern- 
ment officials to carry on their work, we act together. 
A government is therefore the best example we can find 
of teamwork in the district which is served by that 
government. 

25. Teamwork in Other Fields. — The term teamwork 
is used most commonly of voluntary cooperation. That is, 
it is applied to tasks that are not definitely organized 
and planned by the whole society or group for which the 
work is done. Teamwork enters into practically every 
activity of life. Even Robinson Crusoe had his man 
Friday to help him. In the home, in the classroom, on 
the playground when games are in progress, we are work- 
ing together to get the things that we want. In the shop, 
clerk, bookkeeper, and office boy are doing what they 
can to increase the volume of business and satisfy the 
needs of customers. 



SOME ECONOMIC NEEDS AND SOCIETY 31 

Some teamwork is poor because the different workers ^^ d 
are not pulling together. If friction exists between teacher his team, 
and pupil, there is a lack of teamwork and cooperation, 
and little education is secured. On the football field, 
where eleven earnest, husky young fellows are striving 
with might and main to beat their opponents, it is team- 
work that wins. The man that carries the ball may 
make the goal and win most applause, but some share of 
the credit goes to every man on the team who has done 
what is expected of him. 

26. Cooperation in the Building of a House.— If a man Teamwork 
wishes to build a house, the government may tell him struction 
what he can not do, but it will not do the work. If he gJSf an 
does not wish to erect the house himself, he makes an members, 
agreement with a contractor. The contractor in turn 
employs his own foreman and gangs of men to do the 
work. Very seldom does one contractor do everything. 
To one man he lets a subcontract to dig a cellar, to a 
second a subcontract for the plumbing, to a third a 
subcontract for the painting. Possibly there are a dozen 
or more subcontractors who work on a single building 
before its completion. Each of these subcontractors has 
his own set of men. Each man is a member of his own 
little team and is also indirectly a member of the larger 
team which is building the structure. If a building is to 
be constructed well and quickly, it is necessary that 
these different groups of experts complete their own tasks 
within their time limit, in order that the next set of men 
may continue the task of building. Without teamwork, 
carried on under the leadership of those who plan and 
direct, it would not be possible to build the house. 

A builder must have the cooperation of many other g«gygyj 
workers and business organizations. Among these are by other 
the truckmen who deliver the materials, the railway that d?stant° r 
brings goods from a distance, the mills that turn out the workers. 



32 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Cooperation 
among 
workers 
and others. 



Necessary 
dependence 
and co- 
operation 
of capital 
and labor. 



cement and lumber, and the steel plant that provides the 
structural steel, hardware, or pipes for rough plumbing. 
Each set of producers completes some task of con- 
struction that is directly before it, just as each one is 
helping indirectly with the work of building which is 
being done at a distance. 

27. Cooperation in Production.— It can thus be seen 
that cooperation is found at all times in every part of 
our great business world. Each workman has some 
share because a task has been left to him which will not 
be well done if he fails to report for duty, if he is careless, 
or if he does not understand his work. The workers, 
unskilled, skilled, and supervisory, form a great team 
cooperating with one another. But teamwork is not 
limited to workingmen. There is cooperation among all 
who have a share in any business activity. The capitalist 
who furnishes the money, the landlord who owns the 
hillside upon which the trees grow, the man who manages 
the enterprise are each making some contribution to the 
world of business. 

A different type of cooperation is carried on by the 
business man in relation to the worker. The one furnishes 
the factory, the machinery, and the materials; the other 
provides the skill, the service, and the physical strength. 
Capital and labor are quite apt to forget their dependence 
upon each other and their need of working together as a 
team in order to get results. The capitalist who pays 
poor wages and treats his men badly does not realize 
that he is reducing the amount of his output. The worker 
who is a slacker thinks that he is doing harm to his 
employer, when he is really injuring himself and his fellows 
because he does little and does it poorly. There is no part 
of the work of producing goods, that is, of creating wealth, 
in which men may not work together for their mutual 
advantage. 



SOME ECONOMIC NEEDS AND SOCIETY 



33 



28. Buyer and Seller — Markets. — In these days of 
large factories most goods are sold at a distance from the 
place where they are made. It is necessary, therefore, 
not only to manufacture them, but to carry them to the 
consumer. The place where goods are sold or the actual 
selling of commodities is called a market. Markets are 
not used solely for the benefit of either the customer or the 
producer. The farmer wants to sell his produce and the 
manufacturer his goods quite as much as the purchaser 
wants to buy. The one who sells and the one who buys are 
working together in order that the consumer may have a 
thousand different things that he desires without being 
obliged to produce them for himself. In the market, 
therefore, the buyer and seller 
are brought together; each 
helps the other. 

If either buyer or seller 
controls the other, there is 
no direct cooperation be- 
tween them. If the pro- 
ducer is doing business on a 
large scale and controls the 
output of the commodities 
that he produces, we call him 
a monopolist. The monop- 
olist and the profiteer are not 
willing to furnish to the buyer 
at a reasonable price the arti- 
cles that the buyer desires. 
They take advantage of 
their place on the team to shift the load on their team 
mate, the purchaser, because they are able to do it and 
the purchaser can not protect himself. 

Two of the greatest problems of modern society are 
concerned with lack of fair play among team members. 




Gale in "Los Angeles Times' 

Unequal Distribution of 
Burdens 



Nature of 
a market 
and co- 
operation 
within it. 



Unfair 

prices 

charged by 

monopolists 

and 

profiteers. 



Two kinds 
of unfair 
teamwork. 



34 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Greater 
specializa- 
tion of 
individuals 
and better 
organiza- 
tion of 
groups. 



Replace- 
ment of 
old simple 
methods 
by others 
more com 
plex and 
efficient. 



One of these problems deals with the profiteer or monop- 
olist who makes the consumer pay an unreasonable price. 
The other deals with the capitalist who takes advantage 
of unorganized labor, or with the highly organized union 
that dominates the employer and his shop. 

29. Business Organization of Yesterday and To-day. — 
The numerous groups upon which we are dependent for 
goods or services are absolutely necessary to our life 
to-day. There was a time when each family lived more 
or less by itself, raising its own food, spinning and weaving 
its own cloth, and providing itself with most of the other 
things that it needed. That condition existed in the 
early seventeenth century colonies; it has no place in 
twentieth century America. The family that was a 
jack-of -all-trades has passed the way of the man who was 
a jack-of-all-trades. The individual has become a spe- 
cialist, because only in that way can he become skilled in 
his work, and be able to turn out a large product. In like 
manner, groups have become well organized or specialized. 
The father of the family is now able to earn a better 
living by working in a shop, factory, store, or in a trans- 
portation system than he would be able to do, with a 
similar expenditure of time and effort, if he furnished his 
own tools, bought his own materials, and made many 
things in his own back yard. In these days of the high 
cost of living, moreover, he needs the largest income he 
can earn honestly. 

The small simple store has given place to the large com- 
plex business house. With the growth of cities, the 
general store at cross roads has been replaced by the 
mail order house and the huge department store. 
Although a large number of families depend upon the 
corner grocery, more order by telephone from a larger 
store which delivers in all parts of the city. In former 
days we placed savings in a woolen stocking or in the 



SOME ECONOMIC NEEDS AND SOCIETY 



35 



clock on the mantel shelf. In this way the cash was 
withdrawn from circulation. Nowadays we deposit our 
money in a savings bank or in a commercial bank. This 
system is an advantage to the bank because the money 
can be loaned to persons who wish to borrow, and to us 
because we can do business more easily by drawing 
checks than by paying cash. Instead of each family's 
depending upon its own horse and carriage, its members 
can now make use of street cars, with considerable saving of 




Interior of a Savings Bank 

both time and expense. At the present time, therefore, 
people live in large groups or cities, and old, direct methods 
have given way to others more complicated, but more 
efficient. 

30. Unity of Social Organization. — In order that there 
may be a society at all, for example, a community or a 



36 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Need of 
unity in 
the whole 
society, 
and of 
good or- 
ganization 
in all 
member 
groups. 



Need of 
cooperation 
among all 
member 
groups. 



Need of 

similar 

cooperation 

among 

citizens. 



nation, it is necessary that the society, large or small, 
should itself be organized as one group. Unless it is a 
unit, it is not one but many societies. The groups of 
which we have been speaking — the families, the stores, 
the schools, the transportation systems, the banks — are, 
from the standpoint of the community or nation, " within 
groups" or member groups. In spite of, or because of, 
their very great number, each one of these member groups 
must be well organized in order to carry on its own 
particular work. It is not properly organized if it does 
not have leaders, or if it wastes its materials, or if there 
is friction among its members. In other words, it is 
poorly organized if it is inefficient. 

Unless all of these member groups work well together, 
they are like separate animals and not like the separate 
organs of a single animal. These member groups must 
work together easily and well, much as the organs of the 
human body cooperate for the good of the individual. 
They must not look upon themselves as separate and 
distinct organizations, but as member groups of a large 
society. In other words, if they are to be organized 
to do their own work they must cooperate with other groups, 
and not be content simply to do well the immediate 
tasks which are especially their own. 

31. Conclusion— The Place of the Individual in 
Group Organization. — In like manner, the members of 
any " within" group must realize that, if they are to do 
their work properly, they must cooperate with others of 
their group as well as work by themselves. We some- 
times overlook this simple fact and think that we are 
conscientious if we " attend to our own knitting." Some- 
times we do not even cultivate a spirit of fellowship. 
In this we make a great mistake, because there is no work 
that can be done by itself. 

Each group needs leaders. In the high school there 



SOME ECONOMIC NEEDS AND SOCIETY 37 

are some students who are much more in the lime-light The part 
than others. These think of themselves, and we think of played by 
them, as our best school citizens. Possibly they are, and by IP 
possibly not. If they are doing the work that is the most g°5^°Q r 
valuable in school, they are superior as school citizens to 
other students. Otherwise, the well prepared, faithful, 
conscientious student who is always in the game is as 
good a school citizen as those who are more prominent. 
In school and in life, nine times out of ten, the ordinary 
routine — things little rather than big — makes up the sum 
total of our obligations. The talents we have may be 
common talents, but because they are ours is no reason 
why they may not be the best in the world. No one of 
us can do the work of anyone else. The most that is 
required of us is to find our own work, to learn to do it 
well, and then to do it. Lord Houghton expresses the 
idea perfectly. "The best things are nearest — breath in 
your nostrils, light in your eyes, flowers at your feet, 
duties at your hand, the path of God just before you. 
Then do not grasp at the stars, but do life's plain common 
work as it comes, certain that daily duties and daily 
bread are the sweetest things of life." 

References 

1. The instinct of gregariousness. McDougall, Social 
Psychology, 84-87. 

2. Nature of representative government. Forman, The Amer- 
ican Democracy, 17-23. 

, 3. The state and its authority. Willoughby, Rights and 
Duties of American Citizenship, 20-29. 

4. Cooperation. Carver, Elementary Economics, 45-50. 

5. The. division of labor. Carver, Elementary Economics, 
75-82. 

6. The modern business of production and distribution. Leavitt 
and Brown, Elementary Social Science, 52-72. 

7., Present day business organization. Carver, Elementery 
Economics, 100-110. 



38 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 






8. Our social resources and our economic organization. Mar- 
shall and Lyon, Our Economic Organization, 11-21. 

*Leavitt and Brown, Elementary Social Science. 
*Hart, Actual Government, Part I. 
*Carver, Elementary Economics. 
*Follett, The New State, Part I. 
*McDougall, The Group Mind. 

Questions 

1. What do you mean by a group? Is it possible to have a 
group without an organization of the persons forming that group? 
What characteristics must a true group have? 

2. Show how each member of any group is dependent upon 
other members of the same group. Name a half dozen groups of 
which you personally are a member. 

3. Name at least a dozen groups in this community with which 
you have dealings. By referring to the making of shoes or of bread, 
show clearly how "society to-day is woven into a network of inter- 
relations." Distinguish between the persons with whom we have 
ordinary indirect relations, like those with the miller, and persons 
with whom our relationships are even more indirect. 

4. Compare individual and public needs. Name two or three 
types of business needs and show why we require government to 
care for those needs. Why do we need local governments as well 
as state and national governments? What departments does each 
government have and what does each department do? 

5. What is a constitution? Why do we need written constitu- 
tions? How can we tell whether a constitution is democratic or not? 

6. What is a state? How is it different from a nation? What 
is meant by the noun sovereign? How much authority should a 
state have, and over what persons and groups must it have this 
authority? 

7. Name three types of work performed by any state through 
its governments. In a general way, name the limits to the activi- 
ties performed by a state through its governments. 

8. Is there any difference between teamwork and cooperation? 
Show how teamwork may be carried on in different fields under the 
supervision of government. Name ways in which government 
helps us in our daily life. 

9. Explain the necessity of teamwork in the home, in the school, 

*Primarily for teachers. 



SOME ECONOMIC NEEDS AND SOCIETY 39 

and in the shop. What is the effect of friction upon teamwork? 
What is the effect of individual endeavor? 

10. What do you mean by a contract? What is a subcontractor? 
Why does the set of men working for each contractor form a team? 
Show how all persons in any particular industry are cooperating 
with one another. Why is cooperation between capital and labor 
necessary? 

11. What is a market? What is meant by competition? If 
there is competition in a market between buyer and seller, is the 
price likely to be fair? Should there be competition between buyer 
and buyer, in order that they may bid against each other, and 
between seller and seller, in order that each should try to undersell 
the other? 

12. What is a monopolist? Under what circumstances do we 
call a producer or a seller a profiteer? Why may a highly organized 
union that has a true closed shop be just as much of a monopolist 
as a capitalist who controls the output or production of goods in 
any one line? 

13. Were there specialists in colonial times? Why have most 
of us become specialists to-day? Why have economic groups 
become specialized? Is it an advantage to accumulate savings in 
a bank rather than keep them at home? Explain your answer. 

14. Why must a society be organized as one group? What is 
meant by a "within group" or member group? Why is it necessary 
for each of these member groups to be well organized (1) to do its own 
work, (2) to work well with other similar important groups, and 
(3) to work well with other dissimilar groups and with the whole 
society? 

15. Why is it important that an individual should do his own 
work thoroughly as well as cooperate with others. If a student 
is always to be "in the game," how well must he be prepared? What 
attention must he give to the problem before the class? 



PART II 

CITIZENSHIP IN THE HOME 



CHAPTER III 
THE CHILD AND THE YOUTH IN THE HOME 

Group organization in relation to the home 

1. The child and his relationships 

a. Pressing but simple needs of the child 

b. More complex needs of the child 

c. Attitude of the child toward those who help him 

d. Boyhood and girlhood 

2. The youth in the home 

a. The beginning of adolescence 

b. Development of youthful traits 

c. Problems of conduct for boys and girls 

d. The obligations of independence 

3. The young man or young woman in the home 

a. The transition period to maturity 

b. Needs and problems of the young man and woman 

32. Group Organization in Relation to the Home.— * m £ h ° e rtance 
Society can not exist unless it is organized in a large number family and 

J , „ . . , i the home 

of groups. Upon those groups of which we are members, t o its 
in which we come face to face with our fellows, we are members, 
dependent every day and almost every hour. The group 
we need most and with which we spend most time, is the 
family, associated with the home. If we were to ask our- 
selves what is the importance of the family and the home 
to us, we should find it impossible to answer the question 
in a day or even in a month. Yet we should ask ourselves 
that question in order to understand the place that the 
family occupies in the lives of its members and therefore 
in modern society. Because we want food, clothing, 
shelter, and many comforts, the family is the connecting 

43 



44 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Need of 
home life 
for every 
child. 



link between ourselves on the one hand and on the 
other, the great world of business and the complicated 
society, described in the preceding chapter, which fur- 
nishes these goods. In childhood and youth it is especi- 
ally necessary that we should study the family. 

The family and the home which provides its young 
people only with material comforts hardly deserves the 
name of either family or home. Love, watchful consider- 
ation, patient forbearance, and other qualities of the true 

parent are as nec- 
essary as is the 
food we eat or the 
clothes we wear. 
The child in an 
orphanage is fur- 
nished with prac- 
tically all of the 
necessities and 
some of the com- 
forts which the 
child has in the 
home; but he has 

no home life and 
uhild Workers in a Tenement . ,, ,, 

misses all those 

things which make a home most worth while. He would 

be willing to exchange many things that he has for 

the love of a mother or the protecting care of a father, 

or even for brothers or sisters who are his very own 

and who share with him, and with him alone, that place 

which we call home. The relationships, therefore, that 

we have with parents and with brothers and sisters may 

not be so numerous as those which the family has 

with farmer and mechanic and storekeeper; but they 

come very much nearer making up the sum total of life, 

if life is to be lived and enjoyed. 




THE CHILD AND HIS RELATIONSHIPS 45 

The Child and His Relationships 

33. Pressing but Simple Needs of the Child.— Anyone ^f^^ / 1 
who has had experience with children gains the impression a little 
that their needs are numerous because they are recurring 
constantly. As a matter of fact, it is probable that the 

needs of a child are not so numerous as those of an adult; 
but, whereas the adult can satisfy his own needs rather 
easily, the child is usually compelled to depend upon 
others in order to get what he wants. This is particularly 
true during the first year of the child's life. 1 

The most pressing of all human needs is that for food, ^^f 8 
because without food and drink we should very soon ^^ 
perish and there would be no further human needs. The the child. 
adult provides himself with food, 2 clothing, and shelter, 
but the child can secure these necessities only with the 
help of his parents. The child both needs and wants 
other things; among these are toys, some form of enter- 
tainment, and companionship. 

34. More Complex Needs of the Child.— Civilization How the 
demands that the child shall be trained in the way compelled 
that the race thinks necessary. In the early years of his t ° raceme™ 
life, there are numerous admonitions— "don'is"— because quirements. 
he must be taught to avoid those things which society 
believes are not desirable. If he is rightly trained, his 
bringing-up includes advice regarding what conduct is 

best as well as constant suggestions on the right way in 
which to do the things that he wants to accomplish and 
the things that society demands of him. 

As the child grows older, he depends less and less upon The^grow- 
others. Little by little he learns to help himself. His process. 
desire to be like older boys or like his father has a whole- 

i Although the needs of the infant are different from those of an older 
child or a youth, they are of such character that they can usually be 
satisfied by one or two persons; the chief burden -of supplying them 
falls upon the mother. 

2The adult produces wealth which he changes for lood. 



46 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



some influence in arousing his ambition and in helping 
him to grow up. After he reaches what might be called 
the third stage of childhood, the age of the early primary 
grades, he feels a desire to explore new fields and to form 
new friendships. 






Need of 
parental 
authority. 




Copyright, Underwood & Underwood 

Teaching Children Useful Habits 

35. Attitude of the Child Toward Those Who Help 
Him. — If the child's parents or friends provide him with 
food, clothing, shelter, toys, or other necessities and com- 
forts, and if they are to help him avoid danger or learn 
new ways of doing things in a better manner, it stands to 
reason that they must have authority to do these things 
for him. Because a child is so completely dependent 
upon his parents, he is in no position to accept or refuse 
the help which they alone can give. He must rely upon 
the judgment, generosity, and ability of those who aid 
him, and their authority must be to a considerable extent 
unquestioned. 



THE CHILD AND HIS RELATIONSHIPS 



47 



As the child grows, he ought to begin to make some Ways in 

i * • • • i which the 

return for the care and help that he is receiving constantly, child can 
He can show the right spirit toward the person who is ep ' 
trying to aid him, and obey practically without question. 




A Little Mother Caring for Younger Children 

He can make as light as possible the heavy burdens which 
are usually placed upon the mother in the family. Most 
children help willingly and unconsciously, because 
human nature does not like one-sided relationships; it 
wishes to replace them as soon as possible with something 
more fair and two-sided. 

36. Boyhood and Girlhood. — The period from eight Opportu- 
to twelve is usually called boyhood and girlhood. During problems, 
these years the body and the mind do not grow as rapidly p er iod of 
as they have before, or change as much as they will in boyhood, 
the following period. It is a time which can and should 
be used wisely in the classroom for memorizing passages 
and acquiring information that will be of value in all the 



48 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Need of 
developing 
habits of 
considera- 
tion. 



Some 
changes of 
this period 
of transi- 
tion. 



years to come* Boyhood, however, is a period of surplus 
energy and of new initiative. The boy wants to do somer- 
thing different from what he has done in the past. On the 
one hand, he has broken away from childish ways of look- 
ing at things, and is often dissatisfied with the old 
standards of conduct; on the other hand, he has not 
always developed many new ideals of what is right or 
what is wrong. He may not yet have learned what fair 
play is. It may, therefore, be necessary to use with 
him warnings and punishments different from those 
which deterred him in childhood. 

It is also necessary that he should respect authority 
and interfere as little as possible with the rights, privileges, 
and property of others. Being himself rather callous to 
the rough and tumble treatment of his playfellows, he is 
far less considerate of others than he was as a child and 
than he will be as a man. If he has not been taught to 
be kind to dumb animals, that is, unless kindness has 
become a habit which he can not easily break, he may take 
particular delight in teasing, tormenting, or even tortur- 
ing domestic pets. It is quite essential, therefore, that 
kind treatment of others, animals or human beings, 
should have become second nature. 

The Youth in the Home 

37. The Beginning of Adolescence. — The period of 
the " teens" is called adolescence; it is undoubtedly the 
most important transition stage in the life of any in- 
dividual. The youth is no longer a child. Usually he 
has passed out of the "boyhood" period of his existence. 
In this transition stage from boyhood and girlhood 
dependence to adult independence the boy and the girl 
encounter new problems. 1 Many old methods which 

1 The importance of adolescence and its problems is shown by the 
difficulty of considering the boy and the girl at the same time. In these 
sections, however, the masculine pronoun is used almost exclusively, 
although the treatment usually includes girls as well as boys. 



THE YOUTH IN THE HOME 49 

were satisfactory in childhood and fairly usable in boy- 
hood are constantly being discarded; they satisfied the 
needs of earlier years but not those of youth. New 
relationships and adjustments are continually being 
developed, for the brain is becoming capable of under- 
standing more difficult relationships and problems. 

38. Development of Youthful Traits. — Unless a Attitude 
youth is unusually conceited, he is almost as much toward 
interested in others with whom he comes in contact ot ers ' 
and in his environment, as he is in himself. This is 
due partly to the fact that he thinks of others as well as 
of himself. When he was a child, he was frank and 
direct, speaking or acting largely upon impulse. The 
youth thinks more as well as feels more, and he usually 
thinks before he acts. "I did not think" is the excuse 
of those who are mentally immature. When we grow 
up, we stop to think. If a youth becomes angry, he 
controls his emotions because of regard for the feelings 
of others, or at least because he wishes to retain the 
friendship and respect of those who would like him less 
if he continually lost his temper. His self-respect and 
his respect for others are growing. Both are necessary 
if the boy is to make a man of himself. 

His new attitude toward life and his new regard for New qual- 
others and for their opinions lead to new ambitions, growing 
Instead of doing things for the enjoyment of the moment, expanding 
the youth is likely to look ahead, plan for the future, youth, 
and work out fine schemes of what he will do. In 
many boys there is developed a new resourcefulness, aggres- 
siveness, and masterfulness which makes for leadership. 
We are inclined to laugh at the lad who is ambitious 
to overturn or reform the world, yet the youth who 
does not have such desires is lacking in those qualities 
which in the later, soberer years will make the boy a 
noble man, just as somewhat similar desires will make 






50 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Some 
results of 
changes in 
a boy's 
viewpoint. 



Possible 
thoughtful- 
ness and 
economies 
of the girl. 



The girl's 
problem of 
finding 
and filling 
her own 
place. 



the girl a worthy woman. Youth would not be youth 
if it did not see more worlds to conquer. 

39. Problems of Conduct for Boys and Girls. — It 

can easily be seen that the problems of the youth are 
different from those of the child. A boy wants to be a 
man, but he does not know how; he therefore apes only 
the more crude and vulgar habits of the adult. As he 
wishes to be considered independent, he ought to try to 
satisfy his own wants before he calls upon others. A 
youth should be old enough to earn a little pocket money 
instead of asking his father for cash or depending upon 
the generosity of his mother. If his careless ways cause 
extra work in the household, possibly he can mend some 
of them. As the years pass, he should assume a con- 
stantly larger share of responsibilities in the home. 

In adolescence the boy does not change more than 
does the girl. She can be a joy or a burden to all with 
whom she is associated. She naturally wants as many 
fine things about her as she can get, but at least she should 
watch her little extravagances and possibly make for 
herself many of the niceties and comforts in which she 
delights. When the hasty or thoughtless word rises to 
her lips, she ought to stop and consider whether, in 
fairness to herself, it should be spoken. 

The ordinary girl of thirteen is "more mature than the 
boy of the same age. At fifteen or sixteen, however, it is 
probable that she has not gone as far afield in work, play, 
and other interests as has her brother. In consequence, 
she may not have a boy's desire for fair play, yet she 
must prepare herself for a place in the world within which 
her relationships to other adults will be two-sided. 
What she needs is a balanced spirit of independence, not 
an independent spirit which demands that she be 
allowed to do as she wishes, especially if at the same time 
she neglects the simple household tasks in which her 






THE YOUTH IN THE HOME 51 

mother needs help, and continually asks her father for 
money to be used in needless expenditures. Not depen- 
dence or independence but interdependence should be 
her motto. 

40. The Obligations of Independence. — Can not Q {J^ tie ^ 
every youth of fifteen strike his own balance? Might it independ- 
not be possible for him to make an inventory of what must°seek 
the home gives and what it receives? Every young to devel °P- 
person ought to decide whether his family is not doing 
very much more than it gets in return and whether the 
boy or girl is really outgrowing dependence and is becom- 
ing a man or a woman. This question arises: to how 
much independence is a boy or girl entitled who does 
little for those with whom he or she is associated? How 
can a boy be independent, manly, square, and useful 
without granting the same opportunities and rights to 
others? If he demands independence for himself, surely 
he would not expect others to have less. That would be 
neither manly nor square. But if this independence is the 
right to do as he pleases, injuring those who are weaker 
than he and disregarding the rights of others, he can 
'become independent only through sacrificing the inde- 
pendence of others. In that case ' 'might makes right, ' ' and 
independence is a possession only of the strong and 
brutal; of the prize fighter, not the gentleman; of the bully, 
not the man. Independence involves a claim to those 
rights only which are conceded to others. The finer, the 
squarer, the more manly the boy, the more clearly he 
recognizes the obligations as well as the rights of inde- 
pendence. In the days of chivalry there was a phrase 
which expressed this thought, "noblesse oblige, " 
that is, people of the nobility must do more than ordi- 
nary folk. So to-day the nobility of manhood, not of 
birth, makes regard for others the very essence of manli- 
ness and good citizenship. 



52 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Contrast 
between 
past and 
present. 



The self- 
supporting 
young man 
or woman 
of eighteen. 



Contrast 
between 
personal 
indepen- 
dence and 
dependence 
on home. 



/*" 






The Youn^ Man or Young Woman in the Home 

41. The Transition Period to Maturity. — A great deal 
of space might easily and well be given to the young man 
or young woman of eighteen or twenty in the home or in 
relation to his or her associates. In these studies we are 
not directly concerned with the older youth, intensely 
interesting and complicated as are the problems of those 
young people on the threshold of manhood or woman- 
hood. A century ago a young man or young woman of 
twenty was expected to be grown-up and ready to assume 
practically all obligations of an adult. Nowadays we live 
longer and we take a longer time for life preparation. 
If the world is going forward, the men and women of 
each generation ought to know more and accomplish 
more than their parents, and the longer period of train- 
ing should at least teach them to live better as well as 
to make a better living. 

In the homes where no life preparation can be given 
beyond the age of eighteen, the young man or young 
woman is likely to be earning an independent income and 
therefore to be financially self-supporting. Such a 
person, in fact, may be living away from home under an 
environment entirely different from that of childhood and 
youth. Although such a young man or woman has 
fewer responsibilities than the average adult, neverthe- 
less, in relationships to society in general, there is probably 
a fair balance between that which is given and that which 
is received. 

42. Needs and Problems of the Young Man and 
Woman. — The boy or girl of eighteen who is expecting to 
go through college, and therefore looks forward to several 
additional years of preparation for life and life work, is 
ordinarily in a state of semidependency upon the home, 
at least from the financial point of view. The young • 



YOUNG MAN OR WOMAN IN THE HOME 53 

college student should assume responsibilities, not only 
for his own conduct and self-direction, but for some home 
duties which could not well be assumed by him when he 
was younger. How often one sees in the college youth a 
state of dependency hardly removed from that of child- 
hood, yet coupled with an independence which is churlish 
and -blatant. Only the most sage or experienced of 
counsellors would hope to give to such a sophomoric 
young man advice upon any problem in the least personal 
in its nature. Notwithstanding the fact that the final 
[transition to manhood and womanhood is one of the 
most difficult of all periods in the life of any individual, 
the wishes of his parents may count for little and the 
experience of age may be a warning rather than a guide 
to such a sophisticated youth. The fault for such an 
unfortunate state of affairs lies undoubtedly with the 
home and the parents almost as much as it does with the 
young man. Parents who have not had the confidence 
of their children as children and as adolescents can 
hardly hope to enjoy the confidence of a grown-up son or 
daughter. 

During these interesting years how charming but unf or- Possible 
tunately how rare is the true companionship of mother home to a 
and daughter or of father and son! The young man or o^^ng 
woman has the right to expect that his parents will try to woman, 
understand his wishes, share in his interests and pastimes, 
and help him comprehend and face his problems squarely. 
If they do that, he is likely to respond in kind and bring 
to them his ambitions and problems, which he maybe 
glad to discuss fully and carefully. He is likely to ask 
jhis youthful friends to visit him in order that they may 
• know and appreciate his best friends of all — his father and 
his mother. Theodore Roosevelt was one of the greatest 
of presidents, but his letters to his children show that as 
a man and as a father he would have been great if he had 



54 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

never held public office. Certainly the home which has 
given its best to a young man and a young woman, and 
given wisely, may claim in return not only their fellow- 
ship and companionship, but also their thought, interest, 
and endeavor. Even when the young people leave to 
make places for themselves in business or to establish 
homes of their own, they will be so much a part of the 
old home that their places will never be filled. 

References 

1. Finding a home for the child. Feaking, A., World's Work, 28 
(1914), 192-197. 

2. Junior citizenship in the home. Hill, M., Home Progress, 2 
(1913), 14-20. 

3. The high school boy. Clark, The High School Boy, 1-20. 

4. Training in moral thoughtfulness. Sharp, Education for 
Character, 193-200. 

5. Health and efficiency. Drake, Problems of Conduct, 179-193. 

6. Youthful social activities. Clark, The High School Boy, 
114-131. 

7. Qualities desired by employers. American Magazine, 89 
(March, 1920), 21, 261 et seq. 

8. The young man's science of saving. Wayne, Building the 
Young Man, 70-81. 

*Clark, The High School Boy. 

*Puller, Your Boy and His Training. 

*Wayne, Building the Young Man. 

*Hoffman, The High Calling. 

*Sharp, Education for Character. 

*Drake, Problems of Conduct. 

*McDougall, Social Psychology, Ch. III. 

*Tracy, The Psychology of Adolescence, esp. Chs. V-VIII. 

*Herrick, Introduction to Neurology, esp. Chs. XIX-XXI. 

*Goddard, Psychology of the Normal and Subnormal. 

*Godin (Eby, tr.), Growth during School Age. 

*Partridge, Genetic Philosophy of Education. 

*Mackie, Education During Adolescence. 

*Hall, Adolescence, Vol. II. 

Primarily for teachers. 






YOUNG MAN OR WOMAN IN THE HOME 55 



Questions 
1. Name several things that the home does for the child. 



Give 



several types of needs that the little child has. 

2. Upon whom does the child depend (a) for food, clothing, and 
shelter; (6) for toys and other amusements; (c) for companionship? 
What does the child do in return? 

3. What is done by a child and by others regarding the fol- 
lowing : 

(a) Keeping his hands and face clean, keeping his clothes 

mended and tidy. 

(6) The treatment of dumb animals, the care of his own posses- 
sions; the treatment of other people's things as his own. 

(c) Telling the truth, fairness to his playmates, courtesy to his 

elders. 

4. Decide to what extent the youth (a) has outgrown the one- 
sided relations of childhood, and (6) is entitled to consideration as 
a person who gives as much as he gets. Mention a few things that 
he or she ought to do in order to be really grown up and have two- 
sided relationships. To what extent are many boys and girls still 
children in the sense of shirking responsibilities? 

5. If a young man is dependent upon his parents for food, 
shelter, and most, if not all, of his clothing, and on the home for 
many comforts and opportunities, how can he prove that he is 
grown up? What responsibilities ought he to assume about the 
home? 



CHAPTER IV 

HOME PROBLEMS 

1. The American home and its permanence 

a. The family as the sole social unit 

b. Society and marriage laws 

c. The individual American and marriage 

d. Divorce 

(1) Changing conditions and divorce 

(2) Remedies for the divorce evil 

2. The household as an economic unit 

a. Number and size of American families 

b. Family income 

c. Family expenditure and the high cost of living 
Conclusion 

The American home, past, present, and future 



Economic 
and social 
importance 
of the 
family. 



The American Home and Its Permanence 

43. The Family as the Sole Social Unit.— The history 
of civilized society in ancient, in medieval, and in modern 
times is a history of societies made up of families. Cities 
are necessary for carrying on business and securing the 
maximum of profit and enjoyment of life; states (com- 
monwealths) are important for the making of laws, the 
preservation of order, and the protection of rights; 
nations are essential to organize large societies for their 
government, for their protection against foreign enemies, 
and for their development; but none of these is so impor- 
tant as the family. This is the basis of society to-day as in 
the past and it is the only distinctively social unit in the 
modern world. Because it is so important, all nations 

56 






AMERICAN HOME AND ITS PERMANENCE 57 

should safeguard family life in every way possible, and 
develop the family as a social institution. 

Humanity has created a great civilization. Each How 

• c mi 1 m i humanity s 

generation must add something ol value. I he children progress 
of to-day, if born into good homes, will carry on the work U po n n g ood 
of past ages, making the next half century greater than homes> 
this half, as this half is greater than the late nineteenth 
century. We must have strong, healthy children, cared 
for by loving, wise parents, and trained for life and 
citizenship. Society may protect the child from dan- 
gers, but it is the home which must make him a useful 
citizen. 

44. Society and Marriage Laws.— In all ages the ^Jg ty ia 
character of the home has been influenced greatly by the vitally 
marriage customs and laws of the people. 1 In all ages in marriage 
marriage has been regulated by custom as well as by law. laws - 

In fact, our laws usually do little more than state what 
the custom is. The fact that marriage is regulated in 
this way shows that it is a permanent social institution, 
recognized and accepted by the whole society. Since the 
family is the sole social unit of any nation, that nation or 
society must be vitally interested in, and affected by, its 
chief social institution. 

In making laws regarding marriage, society has been Ordinary 
content to tell what should not be done rather than to ments for 
describe what must be undertaken or observed. Children 
are not allowed to marry, nor is a person who has been 
wed permitted to marry again so long as he is legally 
married. Marriage ceremonies are always required and 
usually marriage licenses are demanded. 

45. The Individual American and Marriage. — Among 
some peoples custom has decided rather definitely whom 

i Among some primitive peoples polygamy was practiced, one man 
having several wives. The half brothers and sisters had toward one 
another less interest than have American children of the same family 
group. Among civilized people monogamy has probably always been 
more common than polygamy even where polygamy was permitted. 



marriage. 






58 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



American 
freedom 
in selecting 
a mate 
contrasted 
with usages 
in other 
countries. 



What the 
school can 
do or must 
do in pre- 
paring 
youths for 
home life 
in the 
future. 



Absence of 

divorce 

before 

recent 

times. 



a young man may marry and whom he may not marry. In 
many other countries the selection of a husband or wife is 
settled by the parents of the bride or groom. In America, 
society does not prescribe by law how a life companion shall 
be selected, nor does custom allow the family invariably 
to decide this momentous question. In America far more 
than in any other country a young man or a young woman 
has almost unrestricted choice of a mate. It is especially 
necessary, therefore, that, for their own welfare and that 
of society, the choice shall be wise. 

If the home neglects its duty of preparing young people 
for life in homes of their own, the school must necessarily 
take up part of the burden. In a nation in which more 
than nine tenths of the housewives do their own work, 
the school can give the girls at least a rudimentary train- 
ing in the care of a home. It can prepare the boys to be 
better bread-winners. It can show the folly of hasty or 
too early marriages, the disadvantages of marriages 
delayed until middle age, and the objection to establishing 
a home on an inadequate income. It can emphasize the 
risk of marrying someone of radically different age or 
character or one accustomed to a totally different standard 
of living. It can point out the dangers of marrying for a 
home without love, of neglecting the question of health, 
and of disregarding the accumulated wisdom of parents, 
friends, and society. 

46. Changing Conditions and Divorce. — In ancient 
times men had the right to divorce their wives; but 
wives seldom had the right to secure divorces from their 
husbands. In Europe, during the Middle Ages and in 
early modern times, divorce was practically unknown 
because the Christian churches objected to it. During 
the colonial period and for a long time after we became 
a nation, divorces were seldom granted in America. In 
recent years divorce has increased greatly in the United 



AMERICAN HOME AND ITS PERMANENCE 59 

States. 1 Divorce is an especially serious evil to society 
when it leads to the destruction of the home and the 
separation of children from either parent. 

A hundred years ago mbst people lived in the country J h h a e nging 
or in verv small villages. The members of the home home as a 

xi j au -f *l cause of 

were greatly dependent upon one another and the lamiiy divorce, 
was a unit. To-day more than half of the people live in 
cities. Most families do not own separate dwellings, 
and it is not so easy as it was in the olden days for 
young people really to know each other. 

The development of modern industry has affected ^ d si ^f al 
the home. Store, shop, and factory offer an income, gstrac- 
and women are, therefore, economically more indepen- 
dent than they could have been in the past. Clubs 
and movies offer distractions which in many cases inter- 
fere with home interests and home life. 

Formerly women had few rights and privileges. JjJ^Jjj 
To-day most states allow married women to own j^depen- 
separate property, and legally a woman has practically 
as much control over her home and her children as her 
husband. Women now may vote on exactly the same 
terms as men. As woman has become "independent" she 
no longer need depend upon marriage, but, if she prefers, 
may find a life worth living outside of a home of her own. 

47. Remedies for the Divorce Evil.— As the increase attempts 
of divorce has been due to social causes rather than to toeure tte 
laws relating to divorce, remedies would naturally be [trough 
sought in the causes which give rise to divorce. 2 Most 

i From 1867 to 1886 the divorces in the United States numbered 
328,716. From 1887 to 1906 the number increased to 900,534. In 1870 
there were 29 divorces annually to every 100,000 inhabitants. By 1880 
the number had risen to 38 to every 100,000, in 1890 to 53, in 1900 to 
73 in 1906 to 86, and in 1916 to 112. Such an increase shows an appal- 
ling and dangerous unrest. In the United States the present rate ol 
divorce is more than twice as high as in any other civilized country. 
There is an average of one divorce to every nine marriages. 

sMost of the social and economic causes which lead to divorce are 
not easily controlled because they are connected with important social 
movements which are continuing. 



60 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Practical 
measures 
to reduce 
divorce. 



Advantage 
of large 
families in 
colonial 
times. 



Disadvan- 
tages of 
large 

families of 
working- 
men to-day. 



attempts to solve the divorce problem, however, have 
dealt chiefly with laws. Many people believe that the 
trouble is not due to poor laws, but to the fact that 
divorces are granted too readily under the laws. 

To reduce the number of divorces better marriage 
laws are needed, e. g., laws which make it impossible for 
mental and physical defectives to marry. The universal 
use of licenses and a longer period of waiting before 
licenses are granted are two of the legal safeguards which 
might reduce the number of unsatisfactory marriages. 
Something can be done by more education on the subject 
of the home and the importance of marriage, still 
more by special care in the selection of mates and a 
greater realization of the place filled by the home and 
the family in our civilization to-day. Courts of domestic 
relations, which seek to reconcile dissatisfied husbands 
and wives, careful investigation of cases by judges, and 
more stringent regulations to prevent remarriage after 
divorce are among means used to maintain the perma- 
nence of the home and the family. 

The Household as an Economic Unit 

48. Number and Size of American Families. — In 

colonial times, since labor was scarce, the more children 
there were, the more workers were provided. Large 
families were an advantage; six or eight children were 
the rule. Because land was abundant, living was 
plain, and luxuries were not to be expected, the boys 
and girls earned their own way by the time they were 
thirteen. 

In the United States at the present time, there are more 
than twenty million families. The normal American 
family to-day consists of five members, the average 
number of children being three. Land is no longer 
plentiful, and labor is no longer scarce. Young people 



THE HOUSEHOLD AS AN ECONOMIC UNIT 



61 



do not expect to earn their own living until they are 
are fifteen, twenty, or even twenty-five. Comforts and 
luxuries are demanded by all. For the average family a 
large number of children means a lower standard of 
living. "In 1903 the United States Commissioner of 
Labor reported on 11,156 families of workingmen. In the 
families with one child, the average [annual] income per 




Poor Home Surroundings in a Tenement District 



person was $212.76; in the families with three children, 
the average was $133.18; while in the families with five 
children, the average income per person was $94.97." l 
Yet it is among the workingmen rather than in wealthier 
homes that large families are found. 

49. Family Income, 
is earned by the father or the head of the family. It is of "families. 
impossible to obtain exact figures, and in any case the 
figures change from year to year; but it is probable that 

^Nearing, Social Adjustment, p. 151. 



Most of the money of the family incomes of 

fathers and 



62 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



the average unskilled or partially skilled wage-earner 
earns only about $1250 a year. Others in his family 
usually contribute something additional. The average 
family income of the poorest seventy-fire per cent of 
American families is probably in the neighborhood of 
$1600 a year 1 . This would give an income of at least 







The Shack op a Poor Negro Family 

S300 for each member, if the families were not larger than 
the average. If, however, the addition to the father's 
income is made by the mother of small children, at 
work which takes her much of the time from the home, 
it represents a social loss or cost which is far greater than 
the simi earned by her. 

1 Even these incomes are large compared with those of the peasant 
or artisan of Europe. In Prussia twenty years ago it is estimated that 
four-fifths of the families supported life on less fhan $400 a year and 
that ninety-four per cent lived on less than S750 annually. 



THE HOUSEHOLD AS AN ECONOMIC UNIT 



63 



Averages are, of course, misleading; 1 more than one- Low in- 

COD1GS Ol 

third of these families do not receive as much as a the very 
thousand dollars a year. Many of them, however, are poor ' 
colored families living in shacks in coimtry districts of the 
South, where the cost of living is low. 



1920 




INCOME 




1920 



FOOD 




1920 

CLOTHING 

Cost of Same Family Necessities 1914 and 1920 




1914 
1920 

OTHER EXPENSES 

Cost of Living, 1914 and 1920 
What would have happened if the ordinary family had purchased 
as much food and clothing in 1920 as in 1914. (The dollar of 1920 
was worth about 40 cents of the dollar of 1914.) 

50. Family Expenditure and the High Cost of Living. Wh^the^ 

— In recent years we have heard a great deal about the of living 

high cost of living. Prices have risen more rapidly than in a most en 

wages. Ten years ago the ordinary family was earning families. 

iThe national income tax returns for 1918 show that there were 
sixty-seven persons in the United States whose net income amounted 
to more than a million dollars for that year. Nearly three thousand 
persons had incomes from one hundred thousand to one million dollars, 
and the number of persons with net incomes from two thousand to five 
thousand was nearly two million and a half. 



64 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Proportion 
of income 
used for 
different 
necessities 
and for 
comforts. 



Specific 
cases of 
waste in 
using food 
or clothing. 



enough to give itself a fair supply of food, clothing that 
was good if not stylish, and a house that was comfortable. 
At the present time, comparatively few of those families 
have incomes that will give them the same number of 
necessities, comforts, or luxuries. In the homes of older 
people who are dependent upon the income from funds 
that have been saved, there has probably been no increase 
of income whatever. Because of these changes, the stand- 
ard of living of most families has gone down during the 
last ten years. 

Incomes are to be measured less in dollars than in the 
goods and services which those dollars will purchase. 
After all, it is not so much the amount of the income as 
the actual use of the income which decides the family 
standard of living. If families of workingmen are obliged 
to spend forty-five per cent for food, fifteen to twenty 
per cent for shelter and fifteen to twenty per cent for 
clothing, they will probably have only twenty per cent 
for all other comforts and for luxuries. What is saved 
must be saved out of that small possible surplus, certainly 
at great sacrifice. The larger the family, the smaller 
the remainder for comforts, and the less the chance of 
laying by a little for a rainy day. 

Considering the fact that most families have little 
money for comforts, we are surprised to learn that, with 
knowledge, skill, and care, one-quarter of the total sum 
spent for food and clothing might be saved. Waste 
occurs in the buying of food in small quantities, in the 
purchase of foods of little nutritive value, and in the 
cooking and serving. There is even greater waste in the 
purchase of clothing. Our schools should teach not only 
boys and girls but also parents how to secure greater 
values for their money. 

Many mothers display wonderful skill in making 
family purchases. All mothers should receive the train- 






THE HOUSEHOLD AS AN ECONOMIC UNIT 65 

ing which might make $650, the average spent by more ^family 
than half of our families for food to-day, go as far as $800 should be 
does at present. Would not society be far more than by educa- 
repaid for the cost, if women were trained in scientific tlon - 
household management? Considering the number of un- 
der-fed and half -starved children and adults in the United 
States, society is guilty of almost criminal failure, because 
it does not give better preparation for the use of wealth. 

51. Conclusion— The American Home, Past, Present, ggaracter- 
and Future. — In colonial times, farming was the chief the coio- 
occupation. The farms were large and provided the ma 
families with practically all the things that they needed 
and with most of the comforts that they wanted. In this 
home the father was the ruler, for his word was law. His 
wife was subject to his authority, and, according to the 
well-known phrase, "children were seen but not heard." 

How different is the home of to-day! It is unlike the ^eveiop- 
separate, sheltered home of two centuries ago, just as the home 
the life of the boy and of the girl is different from the to " ay ' 
sheltered, protected life of the little child; and the reasons 
for both are the same. The boy and the girl are growing 
up and are living in a new, a different, and a wider environ- 
ment than that in which the child lived. The typical 
modern home is not isolated on a farm, but is in the 
midst of a bustling city, and may occupy but a small 
part of a huge tenement. In consequence, it is in close 
contact with numerous live city interests which make it 
different than the old home. Just as the boy and girl 
must change in order to fit into the ever-expanding life 
of the youth, so the new home must adapt itself to the 
changing conditions that exist to-day. 

The home of the future will not be like that of the How we 

, rr,i i -1 i £ x-u can help 

present or like that of the past. The children ot tne make the 
present often are lacking in respect and consideration. ^ f e u ^ re a 
Unless they are properly trained, there is every reason to better home. 



66 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

expect that the children of the future will be even more 
disrespectful and inconsiderate than they are now. The 
present home will not grow into a better one simply by 
being left alone. No gardener who wishes to have a 
fine orchard allows his trees to grow without pruning, 
cultivation, and other care. Every member of the family 
must be interested in the home and must work to see 
that the home of the future is better than the one 
of the past and the one of the present. In order to 
achieve this end, it will be necessary to study principles 
and problems connected with such subjects as these: 
the relation of husband to wife, including the subjects of 
marriage and divorce; the relation of parent to child, 
including such topics as obedience, consideration, and the 
protection of children; and the relation of children to 
each other. We must study the financial problem, always 
a pressing one in the majority of homes. We must know 
more about citizenship in the home, in the school, and in 
the community, for they are alike in most respects. We do 
not need to wait, therefore, until we have Uomes of our own 
to help make the home of the future a better institution 
than the one of the past. 

References 

1. Some historical families. Blackmar and Gillin, Outlines 
of Sociology, 116-120. 

2. Influences affecting the family. Blackmar and Gillin, 
Outlines of Sociology, 120-127. 

3. The decadence of the American home. Nearing, Social 
Adjustment, 161-175. 

4. The menace of large families. Nearing, Social Adjustment, 
149-160. 

' 5. The revolution in the home. Nearing, Woman and Social 
Progress, 42-55. 

6. Increase of divorce. Blackmar and Gillin, Outlines of 

Sociology, 138-145. 

7. Remedies for the divorce evil. Blackmar and Gillin, 
Outlines of Sociology, 150-155. 



THE HOUSEHOLD AS AN ECONOMIC UNIT 67 

8. The home training of the girl. Neaeing, Woman and Social 

Progress, 88-96. 

9. The socialization of the home. Tarbell, The Business of 

Being a Woman, 84-108. 

10. Training in household management. Nearing, Woman and 
Social Progress, 177-186. 

11. The problem of the family budget. Bruere, Increasing 
Home Efficiency, 75-93. 

12. The expenditure of family income. Marshall, Wright, 
and Field (eds.), Materials for the Study of Elementary Economics, 
27-33. 

*Blackmar and Gillin, Outlines of Sociology, 112-156. 
*Dealey, The Family in Its Sociological Aspects. 
*King, The Wealth and Income of the People of the United States. 
*Streightoff, The Standard of Living. 

Questions 

1. Explain what is meant by the statement that the family is 
"the only distinctively social unit in the modern world." Show 
three or four ways in which the family and good homes are indis- 
pensable to a great civilization. 

2. What is the meaning of the expression that marriage is "a 
permanent social institution?" In the marriage practices of any 
people, what part is played by custom? Why are most marriage 
requirements put in a negative form? 

3. In the selection of a husband or wife, compare the usage of 
other countries with our own. Give some idea of what the school 
should do in preparing its boys and girls for homes of their own. 

4. Contrast the family life of the past with that of the present. 
Show how permanent marriages usually resulted from the home 
life of the past. Explain why the home life of the city produces 
many divorces. 

5. What occupations or interests did women have a century 
ago? What economic experiences and advantages do women have 
to-day? (See §§171-172.) What is the effect upon marriage of 
the fact that many young women become wage-earners as soon as 
they leave school? 

6. In what respects has there been an increase in the privileges 
and rights of women, and especially married women, during the last 
three-quarters of a century? . (Distinguish between legal, political, 

*PrimariTy for teachers. 



68 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

and social rights.) What has been the effect of "woman's inde- 
pendence" on the home? 

7. Give some idea of the divorce laws at present in this state. 
Why was a national divorce law desired a third of a century ago? 
Is it possible for a man to secure a divorce in a different state from 
that in which he resides? In the prevention of divorce, what is the 
importance of each of the following: marriage laws, divorce laws, 
lenient or strict administration of those laws, public sentiment? 
Name at least three ways in which real reform in divorce might be 
secured. 

8. Show that every household is an economic unit from the 
standpoint of spending money and to a considerable extent from 
the standpoint of earning it. What is the average family income 
for at least two thirds, and possibly three fourths, of all American 
families? 

9. Compare the rise of prices during recent years with the 
increase of wages. Why have the changes been a disadvantage rather 
than a help to the ordinary American family? What percentage of 
the income of the families that are poor, or in rather moderate cir- 
cumstances, can be spent for comforts and luxuries? If luxuries 
are purchased, what is the effect upon the standard of living of 
those families? If there is considerable waste in purchasing food, 
in preparing it, and in serving it, why do most Americans strive for 
larger incomes rather than depend upon education and thrift to 
improve their condition? Is money ever spent unnecessarily by 
girls and boys for articles of clothing? How can family expendi- 
tures due to wastes be reduced most easily and most successfully? 

10. To what extent are low standards of living due to small 
incomes rather than to extravagance and wastefulness? How will 
education affect (a) capacity to earn a large income and (6) ability 
to make better use of money? In recent years to what extent has 
the high cost of living been due to the cost of high living? 

11. In what respects is the home of the present a better or a 
poorer institution than the home of the past? Is the future home 
likely to be a less successful institution than the present one? Why 
should boys and girls make a special effort (a) to develop character 
as a means of improving home life, (b) to study the dangers threaten- 
ing home life at present, and (c) to try to learn what can be done 
to make the home of the future a better one? 

12. Now that woman has many new social and political activi- 
ties, is she a less capable home maker? 



PART III 

CITIZENSHIP IN THE SCHOOL 



CHAPTER V 

PLAYGROUNDS AND SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 

What is school citizenship? 

1. The playground 

a. General problems of the high school playground 

b. Grammar school play activities 

c. Opportunity for leadership and teamwork 

2. School and classroom 

a. The grammar school classroom 

b. The junior high school 

c. General school regulations 

(1) High school courses of study 

(2) Classroom groups 

(3) Promptness and regularity 

(4) Relation of teacher to pupil 

52. What is School Citizenship? — It is possible to General 
speak of school citizenship because the student in a class school 
or school has relationships which carry rights and obliga- cltlzens ip - 
tions similar to those which he has as a citizen of the 
American nation. The field is a narrower one, but the 
general character of the rights and obligations resembles 
that of a larger citizenship. In fact, the principles under- 
lying school citizenship are identical with those upon 
which national citizenship is based. If a boy or girl 
studies the principles of school citizenship, and learns 
what he owes to his fellows and what he should receive 
from them, he has a good idea of the rights and obligations 
possessed by an adult as a citizen of this nation of ours. 
In school the youth can not only study but can also exercise 
these rights and duties. He will understand the nature 
of citizenship if he studies the principles of civic organi- 

71 



72 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Special 
problems 
of school 
citizenship. 



Why the 
high school 
playgrounds 
are less 
important 
than those 
of the 
grades. 



Many 
opportuni- 
ties for 
good 
citizenship. 



zation, practices his civic rights and obligations, and, in 
addition, makes actual use of his civic opportunities. 
Sometimes we have the idea that civic rights and duties 
are things apart from our ordinary work. But in ninety- 
nine cases out of a hundred, civic rights are merely privi- 
leges and opportunities that we enjoy, and civic duties 
are little more than tasks that we perform as members of 
the groups to which we belong. 

School citizenship is largely a matter of well learned 
lessons, of punctual attendance, of concentrated study, 
of close attention in class. It is not, therefore, chiefly a 
thing of student government, or of Friday afternoon exer- 
cises, or of special ceremonies and celebrations. Never- 
theless, there are certain phases of group action within 
the school or associated with the school that we should 
study carefully from the civic point of view. Some 
of these are treated in the following topics. 

The Playground 

53. General Problems of the High School Playground. 

— In the high school and junior high school, the playground 
is important ; but, for a number of reasons, it is not so impor- 
tant as it is in the grammar school proper. In the high 
school there are generally no recess periods, and the noon 
hour is usually a lunch period rather than a play time. 
Therefore, there is very much less play activity at the 
high school than on the grounds of a grammar and primary 
school. The high school grounds, however, present 
important questions and problems ; for they give excellent 
opportunity for students to develop democracy. 

Where lunch is eaten out-of-doors, there are numerous 
problems connected with serving it and with providing 
places for eating food brought from home. Opportunities 
for good citizenship are offered in keeping the grounds 
neat and tidy. The slogan "dirt makes work" has 



THE PLAYGROUND 



73 



deterred students from carelessly scattering papers and 
refuse. By showing a spirit of helpfulness, students can 
aid others in the school. By saving the food that is not con- 
sumed, they can help needy children of their community. 









2 J *s ~*ip ;i \ ! 


• 


^ » • i*"<» «&^ - 


i 




1 if ^ ^ -v] 


> 


< U.i£HHB£iM 



May Day Celebration of School Students 



54. 



Grammar School Play Activities. — In the grammar Need of 

. separation 

schools, play activities are usually carefully supervised by sex and 
by the teachers. At least there is separation of girls age ' 
from boys, and possibly of the larger boys from the smaller 
boys. Since girls have different play interests from boys, 
and since the small boys can not play well with the larger 
fellows, it is desirable that each group should be as much 
as possible by itself. 

Although teachers are ordinarily in charge of playgrounds J >1 f e ^ g ^ nd 
and of the play activities of primary and grammar school supervision, 
children, nevertheless, teachers do not interfere unless 
their intervention is absolutely necessary. Usually only 
a few rules are enforced. If a fight occurs or some larger 
boy abuses one of his smaller playmates, a teacher 



74 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Selection 
of right 
leaders 
and sup- 
pression of 
bullies. 



Social 
value of 
school 
playground 
activities. 



naturally protests. In no other place connected with the 
school is the same freedom allowed to children as they 
enjoy on the school grounds. Except in very large cities, 
pupils have opportunity to run and shout and otherwise 
to work off their surplus energy. On the playgrounds 
they should learn much and develop rapidly. 

55. Opportunity for Leadership and Teamwork. — On 
the playground, the children usually select their own 
games, work out the rules under which these games shall 
be played, and decide who shall be allowed to share in 
any game. Leaders are not chosen by the teacher be- 
cause they are teacher's pets or excellent scholars, but 
by the students because they are good fellows, full of 
suggestions and really capable of leadership. In most 
schools, there are some bullies who have very little regard 
for the rights and desires of others. Ordinarily, how- 
ever, these bullies can be easily managed by a group of 
public-spirited boys who organize and protest against 
their domineering methods. The playground thus gives 
opportunity for voluntary organization, for leadership, 
for self-direction, and for play activity. 

The spirit of the game is the spirit of cooperation, since 
games include many players. In a true sense, the ideal 
of the playground is fair play. The playground is 
democratic, if no cliques are formed and if all are allowed 
to take part in games for which they are fitted by age, 
spirit, temperament, and ability. The grounds are 
really controlled by the pupils. A person who loses his 
temper may be forced to play by himself or may actually 
be punished for his outburst. If a boy is unsocial or is 
anti-social, he may find that he is as lonely as the feline 
that Kipling so well characterized in one of the Just So 
Stories, "The Cat that Walked by Himself." The 
ordinary boy easily learns to give and take, not in the 
spirit of the drawing-room, but in a practical out-of-door 



THE PLAYGROUND 75 

way which develops good sense and firmness of character, 
if not fine discrimination. Play activities are an exceed- 
ingly valuable means of teaching boys and girls how to 
work together, how to organize small groups, and how to 
manage their own affairs in a democratic manner. 

School and Classroom 

56. The Grammar School Classroom. — In a grammar Why the 

, classroom 

school a class usually consists of boys and girls, and the group is 
number is rarely less than twenty or more than fifty. aVYtT' 
A school grade is supposed to be a homogeneous group of 
pupils who are studying the same subjects. A class is 
not really homogeneous if the students are divided into an 
advanced class and a less advanced class. As these boys 
and girls are brought together chiefly because they live in 
the same neighborhood, and as school districts do not 
give attention to neighborhood boundaries, 1 there may be 
a great difference between the more intelligent and the 
more ignorant pupils, between those that have had good 
home training and those that have not, and between 
pupils who want to learn and pupils who look upon school 
as a necessary evil. 

Satisfactory training in citizenship for grammar grade T r 1 J ) e blem of 
pupils presents a complicated problem. In the first continuous 
place, very few cities offer a continuous course in civics eessful 
or citizenship. Even if there is a course of that character, ^^Jgjj e 
it is difficult to secure for consecutive years teachers who 
use the same methods and put stress upon the same things. 
Second, the students, therefore, do not get continuous 
training, year after year, in the same kind of citizenship. 
In a school that has departmental work in the upper 
grammar grades, it may be possible to get satisfactory 
training in citizenship, although it is not easy to do so. 
A third factor of the problem, and the most important of 

iSee §298 



76 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Purpose 
of the 
junior high 
school. 



Character- 
istics of 
junior high 
schools. 



all, is the pupil. The pupils of the grammar grades are 
necessarily young. Some of them are much less mature 
than others in their mental development, interest in 
citizenship, ability to do the right thing, and willingness to 
accept responsibility for their conduct. Even under the 
best training in citizenship, undertaken with excellent 
teachers, few grammar school classes can be made 
responsible for their own conduct, even for one period 
during which the teacher may be absent. 

57. The Junior High School. — In some cities there are 
to be found, at the present time, junior high schools. 
These schools begin their work with the seventh grade, 
taking charge of pupils who have two years of grammar 
school work to complete and giving them the first year, 
or possibly the first and second years, of high school work. 1 
The purpose of the junior high school has been to bridge 
the gap between the grammar grades and the high school 
in order that fewer students may drop out. To some 
extent the junior high school should have a new and 
different course of study from that which was formerly 
followed in the upper grammar grades and in the lower 
year or years of the high school. 

The junior high school makes use of departmental 
organization and methods. In many cities, however, 
departmental work is found in the upper grammar 
grades. Each pupil has a class teacher, but has different 
teachers for such subjects as mathematics, English, and 
science. The junior high school is like the grammar 
school in that most of the subjects are required, at least 
half of the work of every pupil being the same as that 
taken by every other. For the rest of the work, however, 
the junior high school is like the high school. A pupil is 

J The junior high school can classify or group pupils who need or wish 
the same type of work better than can be done in grammar schools, even 
if the latter have departmental work. This is made possible by the 
larger districts served by the junior high schools, districts which are, 
after all, much smaller than those of the regular high school. 



SCHOOL AND CLASSROOM 



77 



allowed to select either a general department, within 
which he may take additional subjects, or he may choose a 
course that allows him to elect some other subjects in 
which he is particularly interested. The required sub- 
jects strengthen the foundation upon which any good 
advanced education must be built. If the pupil is allowed 
to elect some of his subjects, however, he is more likely 
to be interested in his work and therefore to remain in 
school. He will also be better trained in the special work 
for which he is preparing himself. 

The regular, more or less routine, subjects should be 
taken by the student who expects to remain in school, as 
they will give the best preparation for later years. If the 
student branches off too early into practical and technical 
subjects, or acquires special skill along those lines, he 
may not be so well fitted for advanced work, if he wishes to 
continue in school. 1 

A junior high school which attempts to bridge the gap 
between grammar school and high school, but which 
instead creates a still greater gap between the junior 
high school and the senior high school, has failed absolutely 
of its purpose. 

58. General School Regulations — High School Courses 
of Study. — A large majority of students who have first 
year high school work are taking it not in the last year of 
a junior high school, but in regular high schools. 2 The 
ordinary high school has four classes, known as freshman, 
sophomore, junior, and senior, and sometimes as ninth, 
tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years. The course of study 
is arranged to provide different courses for different 
groups of pupils. For graduation sixteen or more full 
year subjects, or an equivalent, are usually required; 

1 In this connection consult §§119, 143-145. 

2 Out of 1,332 schools reporting in the North Central states, only 170 
were junior high schools. Junior high schools are fairly common in the 
West, but much less numerous in the East. 



Objections 
to very 
early voca- 
tional 
training. 



Failures in 
junior high 
school. 



Classes and 
general 
graduation 
require- 
ments. 



78 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



The solid 
part of a 
good high, 
school 
course. 



Choices in 

elective 

subjects. 



Size and 

general 

character 

of high 

school 

classes. 



but a well organized high school does not allow a student 
to graduate with any sixteen subjects. 

In most American high schools, there is a general school 
requirement. For example, in California each student 
must take two years of English, one year of a laboratory 
science, and one year of history or other social science, 
usually American history and civics. In addition, each 
graduate must have had three or four units of the major 
subject of his course and three units of one closely related 
subject or two units each of two related subjects. For 
instance, in one school, if a student selects the English 
course, i, e., majors in English, he is required to take four 
years of English and three years of either social science or 
a modern language. 

There are usually some requirements in each depart- 
ment, but ordinarily about four full year electives may 
be selected by the student, This should be done on the 
advice and with the consent of the head of the depart- 
ment in which he majors. Most students take four 
subjects a year and graduate in four years. Since some 
work in physical education is usually taken in addition 
to four other subjects, a student who has not failed in 
any subject, or who has not been absent for any length of 
time, will usually have more than sixteen units at the 
end of his senior year. 

59. Classroom Groups. — Instruction in high] schools 
and in junior high schools is usually given in groups or classes 
of from twenty to forty students. In the freshman year 
of the high school, there is a large number of duplicate 
sections or classes in most subjects, but with senior sub- 
jects that are not required for graduation there is ordi- 
narily only one class or section at a time. Important 
subjects are usually arranged by half years, and the work 
of any semester can be begun either in September or in 
February. 






SCHOOL AND CLASSROOM 79 

If good work is to be done, the personnel of a class The^ ^ 
should remain constant during a semester. If changes a fairly 
are made constantly, the group can not be a unit, tne and homo „ 
teacher does not know what the members can do, the gneous 
members can not become acquainted with one another, 
and the best methods for that group can not be discovered 
and used. A class ought to be made up of students of a 
similar type or grade. It is unfair to place the quick 
student with a class made up chiefly of pupils who are 
barely able to carry the work. It is unkind to place the 
slow student in a class made up almost entirely of students 
who learn easily, react quickly, and recite promptly. 

60. Promptness and Regularity.— In many well organ- f o n ^ e 
ized high schools no student can be admitted to any class The class 

iz;cu. n±&^ ov ,ii-i period. 

without an entrance card. He is expected to be in class 
daily before a tardy bell rings and remain in class until 
dismissed by the teacher. A closing bell is usually rung. 
It gives a signal that the period is over and that the pupils 
should pass to the next recitation. 

Some classes have no tardiness whatever, having a Objections 
code of honor which makes tardiness one of the cardinal ness. 
sins. Tardiness is bad for the student, whereas prompt- 
ness and regularity are two of the most important traits 
of character which a man or woman can acquire. Tardi- 
ness is bad for the class because it interferes with work. 

Absence is sometimes unavoidable. When a person is g«^na 
sick, it is necessary for him to stay away for his own sake 
and possibly for the sake of the others in the class. 
Illness in the family is sometimes responsible for the 
absence of a student; and occasionally there are other 
unavoidable causes of absence. It is safe, however, to 
say that most cases of absence among high school students 
are preventable, being due to carelessness, thoughtless- 
ness, and indifference, rather than to reasonable cause. 

In absence and in tardiness an old saying holds, "an 



80 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Need of 
making up 
losses at 
once. 



The rela- 
tion of 
pupil to 
the class. 



The teacher 
as a leader 
and guide. 



ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." An 
absentee loses the work done in his absence. However 
well he may do the tasks which he personally is supposed 
to perform, if the class is doing group work, he will have 
lost the benefit of all discussions and the mental stimulus 
that comes from group action. If the pupil is absent but 
one day, the work that was lost should be made up at 
once, so far as it is possible to make it up at all. If the 
absence has covered several days, whenever possible the 
student should go on with advance work and make up 
the back work at his earliest convenience. A student 
who is compelled to do the back work first, as in Geometry 
or Latin, may not catch up with the class for two or three 
weeks — a serious misfortune. 1 

61. Relation of Teacher to Pupil.— A high school 
student is no longer a child. He is supposed to be a 
thoughtful youth, who has selected his course with a 
definite purpose in mind and with the aim of getting the 
most possible out of his education. He should give some 
thought to the reason why the class is organized in the 
way that it is and why it uses the methods that it does 
rather than some other methods. As any one student 
can not modify the work and methods of other pupils, 
and as he is in practical control of his own mind and 
methods, if he is wise he will devote his attention chiefly 
to studying and improving his own work and ways. 

Some students have the impression that the teacher is 
a martinet who likes to make pupils do things for their 
own discomfort. If we turn back to our discussion of 
one-sided and two-sided relations and apply that knowl- 
edge to the classroom, we shall see at once that the 
teacher is, after all, only the leader of the group with 

1 Members of each school should learn as quickly as possible the 
proper forms necessary to excuse absence or tardiness, and should learn 
promptly and use carefully the best methods of making up any work 
that has been missed. 









SCHOOL AND CLASSROOM 81 

authority to see that the group is properly organized 
and that its work is done in the best manner possible. 
The relation of teacher to pupil is, or should be, two-sided. 

References 
1. Play at the rural school. Curtis, Education through Play, 

148—165 

2 The human value of play. Lee, Play in Education, 26-34. 
S 3*. The size of the school yard. Curtis, Education through 

Play, 114-119. . 

, 4 Ten essentials for the health of rural children. American 

City (Town and County ed.), 21 (1919), 327-330. 

5. The selection of a high school. Gollomb, That Year at 

Lincoln High, 1-9. . , . n tt n rh* 

6 A high school course in social science. Hill, ±i. U., me 

School Review, 27 (1919), 680-694. 

7 A modern school. Suggestions on its reorganization. *lex- 

ner, A., Review of Reviews, 53 (1916), 465-474 

8 Self discipline. Wright, From School through College, 71-91. 
9' The leisure hour. Clark, The High School Boy, 76-95. 

10. Morals and manners of the high school boy. Clark, The 

High School Boy," 132-151. _ ^ ^ 

11. The making of citizens. Jenks, Citizenship and the Schools, 

75-95. " 

♦Curtis, Education through Play, 1-165. 

*Lee, PZgm/ w Education. 

*Cabot, TFTwrf Men Live By. 

*Haynes and Matson, A Community Recreation Program 

(Cleveland Recreation Survey). 
*Bobbitt, The Curriculum, Parts I and V. 

Questions 

1 What is school citizenship? Why is it like citizenship in 
the nation? Keeping in mind the length of the recess periods in 
the different schools and the different ages of most of the students 
in those schools, compare the play problem in the grammar school, 
the junior high school, and the high school. 

2 What persons are allowed to play on the grammar school 
grounds, on each side of the buildings? Is anyone discriminated 
against because he is too young or too old? Has any pupil for- 

*Primarily for teachers. 



82 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

feited the right to remain on the playground and enjoy its privi- 
leges? If so, how did he forfeit the right? 

3. Give some of the school rules which affect the playground 
and its use. Try to find a reason for each rule, that is, explain 
why it is a good one or in what respects it can be made better. On 
the boys' playground, what other rules are practically made and 
respected by the boys themselves? 

4. Would you call the boys on the school ground a democratic 
group of persons? To what extent is it possible for a bully or a 
dictator to control the school ground and the school games for his 
own personal advantage? Are games on the playground open to 
anyone who wishes to play them and who has sufficient skill? Do 
they help to develop the boys' idea of what is fair and square? What 
are some of the lessons taught to the boys by the playground? 

5. Explain whether the girls' playgrounds leave the girls un- 
developed as school citizens. If so, what can the girls do, on the 
school grounds or elsewhere, to remedy any lack of games and to 
develop these qualities of honor, fair play, and cooperation which 
the boys have learned, or should have learned, on the playground? 

6. Compare purpose, methods, and courses in the grammar 
school, the junior high school, and the regular high school. What 
kind of course in citizenship is offered by the schools of this city in 
grades five to twelve inclusive? What are the advantages of depart- 
mental work for young students? What are the disadvantages? For 
the student who continues his school work, why are regular foundation 
subjects better than more practical, technical, "skill" subjects? 

7. Why should much of a pupil's work be connected with one 
major subject and one or two minors? What is meant by an elec- 
tive subject? What should determine the electives which you will 
choose in high school? 

8. How is a pupil admitted to class in this school? When is he 
tardy? Name at least three reasons why tardiness is objectionable. 
If loss is occasioned by absence, how can the work best be made up 
and how quickly can it be done? (Consider two subjects in addi- 
tion to that of citizenship.) How are absences and tardiness 
excused in this school? 

9. How can the relation between the teacher and an advanced 
pupil become a two-sided one? What opportunities do teachers 
give students to teach themslves? Show that democratic schools 
are impossible unless students deserve privileges, assume responsi- 
bilities, and possess a fair degree of maturity. 



CHAPTER VI 
WORK OF THE CLASSROOM 

1. Preparation of work 

a. Lesson assignments and preparation 
6. Aims and means in lesson, preparation 
c. Suggestions regarding study 

2. The recitation 

a. Different types of recitations 

b. How to organize and present material 

c. Collateral reading 

3. Examinations 

a. Examinations and reviews 

b. Preparation for an examination 

c. Cheating in examinations 

d. School citizenship and examination supervision 

4. The class, the individual, and society 

a. Group responsibility and individual leadership 

b. Is education worth what it costs? 

Preparation of Work 

62. Lesson Assignments and Preparation.— A teacher What con- 
should assign lessons that can be prepared within a good 



lesson 
assignment. 



should assign lessons mar can oe prepared wiliuu a 
reasonable time. If his assignment is clear, direct, and 
'suggestive, he has every right to expect careful, thought- 
ul preparation. If necessary, the pupil should take 
otes on the work assigned. The teacher has the right 
'to demand that the student pay close attention, under- 
stand all important suggestions, be able to start his work 
Quickly, and know what he must attempt to do. 

The preparation of a lesson is not a simple task, although lf^^ t Qe 
it may be one to which a student may have given little or lesson 
no thought. Much of the education that we acquire we prepar ' 

S3 



84 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Relative 
value of 
information 
and 
knowledge. 



Causes of 
failure and 
of success 
in school. 



gain in the preparation of our lessons. The person who 
learns how to study well and uses better methods month 
by month is obtaining a good education whether he learns 
anything in the classroom or not, and a well prepared 
student is always interested in good class work. 

63. Aims and Means in Lesson Preparation. — After a 
quarter century in the classroom, the writer realizes the 
importance of facts in the understanding of any subject. 
Facts, however, give us only information, and the object 
of education is not primarily to secure information but 
to secure knowledge. Knowledge is not mere information, 
although to a considerable extent it is organized informa- 
tion. We must not forget, therefore, that without infor- 
mation — solid, practical facts — there is little knowledge. 
This is his advice: " Don't be afraid to acquire facts and 
more facts. 1 Retain the most important of those facts, 
but treat them as a means to an end, not as an end in 
themselves, because education is a process of acquiring 
knowledge, and power, and possibly wisdom." 

Probably more cases of failure in school are due to 
lack of concentration than to any other single cause. 
The person who does not give his attention wholly to the 
work at hand will make but half progress with it. When a 
boy is playing " short stop" on the school nine, he does 
not need to be told that he should not watch airplanes or 
spend his time looking at distant hills, for his attention is 
completely concentrated on the batter and the ball, on 
throwing the ball "to first" ahead of the runner. Interest 
is probably the most important single element of concen- 
tration, and interest, as well as concentration, is largely 
a matter of habit. A boy who permits himself to think 
that a subject is not interesting and important has rolled 

1 Not all facts are of equal importance. In studying a subject those 
facts are most necessary and valuable that really explain what changes 
occurred, why the event happened, or what resulted from it. In study- 
ing facts, therefore, notice their relation to each other and try to remem- 
ber them through these relations rather than as separate entities. 






PREPARATION OF WORK 85 

unnecessary stumbling blocks in his own path. If play 
• is little but enjoyable work, as Professor Thomas insists, 
make a game of the class duties, and "get into the game." 
64. Suggestions Regarding Study.— When the teacher ^ e o e ^£ f s 
j asks you at the beginning of a recitation what the lesson crimination. 

is for that day, have you ever had the experience of 
I wondering rather than knowing? How often could you 
i pick out the main topic of that day and give the sub- 
stance of five essentials included within that topic? 
Why not ask yourself these questions in advance : 
f'WTiat is the main topic for to-day? What are three, 
.four, or five of the subjects which make that topic what 
it is?" When the lesson was assigned, those points may 
have been made clear; but it is possible that the teacher 
(wished you to work them out for yourself as the chief 
task in preparing the lesson. Learn to ask yourself 
jquestions. Learn to discriminate between important and 
; Jess important material. Learn to organize your materials 
by noticing the connections between subdivisions of the 
main subject. 

A successful student is almost always regular in his Need of 

•i -t ■ pi sinning 

-(periods for study. An unsuccessful pupil studies any andregu- 
,lesson when he can, and, as he does not plan his work, 
usually has little time for any. Have a regular time for 
teach subject, and as far as possible study it at that time. 
,We have heard much about the use of midnight oil; 
the best students do not burn it. 

Remember that there is no virtue in spending a long ^edof^ 
time over any subject. Your capacity as a student is improving 
measured (1) by doing your work well, (2) by doing it me 
regularly, (3) by doing it quickly, and (4) by learning to 
do it better and better in a shorter and shorter time. 
If, in the ninth grade, you use methods that would have 
been considered good in the seventh grade, you are two 
years behind the times Who wants to be out-of-date? 



86 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Use of the 
question 
and answer 
method. 



The Recitation 

65. Different Types of Recitations.— In the classroom 
many different methods may be used by different teachers 
and with different subjects. Three or four methods, 
however, are especially common in group work. That 
which is used most in the grades is a question and answer 
method, the teacher asking many questions to which 
fact replies are given by the pupils. Very little thought 
work is done, and most of the boys and girls are satisfied 




Photo by Field Photographic Service, Pasadena 

Class Organized as a Civics Club 
(One of the author's advanced civics classes) 

to answer in one word or in a very few. A second form of 
recitation consists in the asking of questions which the 
students answer somewhat more fully. If students are 
not allowed to volunteer until someone has had a chance 
to recite, and if the answers are as full as the subject 
matter permits, recitations of this kind can be made 
good drill for memory work and will present a subject 
fairly well and from many angles. Much of the good 
work of the grades is of this type. 

Some classes can not, or will not do any better work 



THE RECITATION 87 

than that mentioned in the preceding paragraph. They ^ ec ^ a ^ n 
compel the teacher to hear recitations, and nothing but 
recitations, largely because they will not prepare lessons 
properly unless they are forced to recite daily upon 
definite facts. Every class that is worth while should 
aim to reduce the teacher's drudgery to a minimum. 
If a student's work is prepared, whether he is likely to be 
called upon or not, the teacher can save much of the time 
that otherwise would be used to draw forth information 
or pound facts into the minds of pupils. If students 
learn how to organize their material, they can recite 
upon it in the form of a topic, that is, a well organized 
and closely related group of facts and ideas. In this way 
they can save the teacher many questions and reduce 
greatly the time spent in recitation. This will leave time 
for discussion or for the study of problems. 

A method which may be used in later years, but which D ^^{ ) " 
is not so easy for younger students, is the development a topic as 
method. In attacking a subject as a topic, the members of solving 
of the class should discuss it thoroughly, rather than have a P roblem - 
material presented from several books by different 
students. It is well to try to find the best method of 
approaching each subject and to work out the next step 
carefully. By developing the topic from stage to stage, a 
class can finally complete it. It is then highly desirable 
to go back and cover the whole ground, first giving the name 
of the topic — or a statement of the problem — and then 
explaining it from the beginning to the conclusion. Much 
interest may be developed by treating some concrete 
subject as a project, upon which definite materials are 
gathered and studied, the students drawing conclusions 
and obtaining definite results. There are several advan- 
tages of the problem-topic method : students are forced 
to think a problem through ; they are compelled to use 
their judgment about good introductions; they must 



88 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



How to 

arrange 

and 

introduce 

material 

of a topic. 



How to 
make class 
discussion 

a success. 



Suggestions 
on outside 
readings. 



progress logically from one step to the next, and therefore 
not only understand the problem as a whole, but see the 
relation of one part of it to another. 

66. How to Organize and Present Material. — Be pre- 
pared to organize your material so that you can easily 
connect facts that belong with one another. When intro- 
ducing a topic, see if one fact will not introduce it better 
than another. Notice what kind . of material should 
follow the introduction. In a narrative account in history, 
events may be considered in a chronological order. In a 
history topic that is being discussed logically, try to get 
together all your material in a still better form. Only by 
watching the arrangement of material within a topic, is it 
possible to give a good topic recitation, and a good topic 
recitation is a thing of joy. 

If there is opportunity for class discussion, always 
keep to the subject. Know what the subject is and what 
should belong to it, and see if you can discuss only those 
things which help to make the subject clearer. A class 
discussion of a topic is like a topic recitation, but it is 
very much more difficult to keep to the point. In any 
case, be prepared to help, for class discussion is like a 
game, which requires the participation of all. 

67. Collateral Reading. — In connection with many 
subjects, history and English for example, there is a con- 
siderable amount of reading for which we use the awk- 
ward title, " outside work." In history some collateral 
reading should be done even by freshmen students. 
Almost every school has a library of which it is proud. 
The collection of books is not chiefly for show but for use. 
Outside reading need not be done every day. Hence a 
problem: When shall the collateral reading be done? 
If the reading is related to the work of the week, why not 
do it when it will be of most help? If the class is studying 
the Crusades, and there is an assignment of outside 



THE RECITATION 89 

reading on the Children's Crusade, should it not be 
completed before the Children's Crusade is discussed in 
class? One outside reading in its place is worth two 
done a week late. In some classes it is possible to give 
reports on outside readings. When this is the case, the 
pupil must read the assignment before that subject is 
considered in class; he has every incentive to do the 
work well and to explain the topic in detail to his fellows. 
In taking notes and in writing papers, pupils should be 
careful not to copy the words of authors without giving 
credit. If they do, they may be guilty of plagiarism. JgfgSSta 
The outside reading which we do by ourselves, chiefly of collateral 
for our own benefit, presents a different problem. We 
should read the whole of the reference and select with 
care that part upon which we are to take notes. Some 
students do not think enough of themselves to read the 
assignment carefully and thoroughly. Much has been 
said about honor systems in schools. There is prob- 
' ably no task for which the student needs to place 
himself upon his honor more than in doing well his out- 
side reading, especially those readings upon which no 
notes are taken. Collateral reading is a splendid test of 
character. The poor student does this work in a slip- 
shod manner, never has his notes ready on time, and, in 
general, shows that he is spineless. The good student 
does the work at the best time, does it well, and is always 
" ahead of the game." Reading is not child's play, it 
is a man's work. The most intellectual of the ancient 
philosophers, Plato, is reported to have said that the end 
of education is learning to read. 

Examinations 
68. Examinations and Reviews.— Many students Why^an 
would not object to school were it not for examinations, tionneces- 
Examinations seem to be characteristic of school rather 



90 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



The real 
value of 
reviews. 



The need 
of learning 
to ask 
yourself 
the right 
kind of 
questions. 



Different 
types of 
test ques- 
tions. 



than of life, but in a true sense, life is continually re-exam- 
ining us. If school is to prepare us for life, to teach us 
how to live, it must give us some tests and some examina- 
tions. 

In the grades and possibly in the lower years of the 
high school, tests or examinations are likely to be pre- 
ceded by reviews. With the student who is in school for 
a purpose, the right kind of review should be invaluable. 
When our armies in France were advancing against the 
Germans, they stopped occasionally in order to "con- 
solidate" their gains. A review, and possibly a test, 
serves somewhat the same purpose. A student who is 
continually accumulating, needs to go back and pick out 
the more important material, to refresh his memory on 
things that have slipped away, and to get a better grip on 
the underlying principles of the work that has been done. 
In going over the work the first time, he is overwhelmed 
with a mass of detail. In review he sees how all of these 
details, apparently so different, are related to the main 
subject. 

69. Preparation for an Examination. — With advanced 
classes, the writer has sometimes asked the students to 
make out their own examinations, that is, to suggest 
questions suitable for examination. Even a freshman 
high school student must be able to do this to some extent 
in order to prepare himself properly for a test. If he 
has not the slightest idea of what questions the teacher 
may ask, or why the teacher asks any of them, he is in 
no way prepared to take the examination. 

Test questions or examination questions may be simply 
fact questions, covering material that has already been 
studied carefully. They may be general questions, com- 
bining different kinds of facts gathered at different times 
but belonging to the same subject or topic. They may 
be partly general questions and partly thought questions, 



EXAMINATIONS 91 

bringing together material and asking the student to 
explain the meaning or the value of the facts presented. 
They may be thought questions, dealing with principles 
which underlie work that has been treated in the preceding 
weeks. If tests are to measure growth, the type of 
question will depend largely upon the grade of the class. 
Fact questions may predominate in freshmen examina- 
tions; more thought work will inevitably be included in 
senior tests. 

The art of giving examinations is not an easy one. Problems 
If an examination is to be fair to both student and Nation™ 1 " 
teacher, it should cover the work that has been done in f^gj| and 
class, but it should also call for capacity to bring material 
together and work out problems similar to those which 
have been developed in class. It is wise to learn the art 
of preparing for tests and the art of answering questions 
satisfactorily. In advanced examinations, where facts 
must be presented in topics, a conglomeration of facts 
, has very little value compared with a topic that is 
j correctly introduced, well organized, and concisely 
presented. 

70. Cheating in Examinations. — We sometimes think Whom does 

i of a test or examination as chiefly a test of knowledge, cheat? * 

i It may be a test of character. In many classrooms no 

test or examination can be given by a teacher unless he 

watches the students every minute. Why? Because 

some students haven't the "examination character" that 

will stand the test. A student who would not cheat at 

games might be perfectly willing to take advantage of a 

teacher, if he could do so without danger of being caught. 

He never stops to ask himself these questions: ■" Why 

I should I cheat?" "Whom am I cheating?" If he did, he 

would realize that he could not possibly cheat the teacher. 

The only person he can cheat is himself. He can perhaps 

deceive the instructor by pretending that he has knowl- 






92 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



What 
classes do 
not need 
supervision ? 



How good 
school 
citizenship 
really 
makes a, 
school self- 
governing. 



edge greater than he possesses. He can take advantage 
of the members of his class who are too honest to cheat 
and may thus secure for himself a higher mark than he 
otherwise would have. In the long run, however, he lowers 
his grades because his abilities do not grow to correspond 
with the unfairly high marks that he received at first. 
It is safe to say that few cheaters stop to question 
themselves, for if they did, there would be little cheating. 
The real difficulty is that some students have not thought 
about this problem, and have not understood that the 
cheater injures a class, although he cheats only himself. 

In most classrooms, it is probably not wise for the 
teacher to be absent during examination and to leave the 
students entirely in charge ; but there have been grammar 
school classes as low as the seventh grade in which the 
presence of the teacher was not necessary to prevent 
cheating in examinations. If classes could only learn 
and practice good citizenship, cheating would disappear 
because the cheater would come to be looked upon as a 
school criminal. 

71. School Citizenship and Examination Supervision. 
— As we shall notice, if the students do not wish or try 
to do the right thing, a school must have and enforce 
many rules. When the students of any class or school 
show the right spirit, make the teacher and each other as 
little trouble as possible, and strive to make their class 
or school the "best ever," either the school has few rules 
or the rules need not be enforced. Such a school deserves to 
be called self-governing, because the students decide how 
it shall be managed, and need very little discipline. The 
same is true of a classroom which is doing fine recitation 
work or taking examinations in the right way. If the 
spirit of the school is honesty and nothing but honesty, 
cheating will be discouraged by the class itself. 

If the teacher is not in charge of an examination of 



EXAMINATIONS 



93 



advanced students, 1 who shall be? Shall it be the indi- Why 

. honesty in 

vidual student or the group of students in the class: examina- 
After all, if there is cheating, it is done by individuals, excellent* 1 
The individual, therefore, would seem to be the one who ^JoSf good 
should be responsible. But everyone knows that if one citizenship, 
person cheats, others who ordinarily would be honest 
may be tempted to cheat also. If the individual can not 
be asked to be responsible, can the responsibility be shifted 
to the whole class? What shall the class do about the 
matter? Certainly, members of the class must not report 
cheating to the teacher. Moreover, moral suasion might 
not have much effect on a person whose principles were so 
bad that he would cheat in the face of class disapproval. 
Each advanced class might be asked to decide for itself 
whether it is willing to accept group responsibility for 
the prevention of cheating and for the punishment of 
anyone who attempted to cheat in an examination. 2 
If the class is unwilling to accept this responsibility and 
believes that its members are not individually strong 
enough to resist temptation in the absence of the instruc- 
tor, a considerate teacher will refrain from exposing them 
to unnecessary temptation. 

The Class, the Individual, and Society 

72. Group Responsibility and Individual Leadership. The 

— A fairly mature class in citizenship could easily organize an d the op- 

itself into a permanent, more or less self-directing, group, £°J umty 

but many classes do not feel the need of having leaders teacher's 

J absence. 

i Freshmen high school classes which the writer has taught insist that 
the teacher should not leave classes unsupervised during examinations 
earlier than the sophomore year. Most of his senior classes have 
managed, however, without supervision, although they always do better 
when he is present. This is a problem which should not be thrust upon 
a class, and which should not be decided by a class unless it shows 
ample capacity to solve the problem wisely. 

2 Training in school citizenship and any real form of self-government 
in school must be counted failures if the seniors who have had ample 
opportunity to study citizenship refuse to face squarely this problem of 
cheating. 



94 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



What can 
be done 
in case a 
teacher is 
absent? 



Summary. 



other than the teacher. It is a good plan for a class to 
have the spirit of self -organization, if not temporary or 
permanent officers. In the absence of teachers, some 
classes think only of the opportunity for disorder. This 
is the more strange because usually there are only three or 
four students who prefer disorder to order. Why should 
the majority of the class allow itself to be led by those 
students with poorest civic or school spirit? If the 
members of such a group would stop and think, they 
would hesitate to be dominated by those members who 
are the most thoughtless and careless; because, after all, 
disorder is due more often to thoughtlessness and care- 
lessness than to evil intent. No society could long exist 
that allowed itself to be so misled. 

In the absence of a teacher, why is it not possible for a 
class to select one of its own members as head? Even 
if it does not study or continue its regular class work, at 
least it can refrain from annoying other classes. Most 
of us get into mischief if we are not busy. Classes 
should, therefore, have something definite to do. Almost 
invariably lessons have been assigned in advance, unless 
the teacher has been absent more than one day. If there 
is no one to assign work or to assign a lesson for the fol- 
lowing day, might it not be possible for the group volun- 
tarily to study advance work? In classes in mathematics 
or in history, for example, there is no reason why some 
member of the class might not serve as questioner. As 
each individual is supposed to be in school for a purpose, 
that is, to educate himself, and as the group as a whole is 
organized for that purpose, is there any reason why the 
teacher's absence should be anything less than an 
educational opportunity for the class? 

In many ways a school can not have a highly democratic 
form of organization. In the absence of its regular leader, 
the teacher, the class has its best chance to be self -govern- 



CLASS, INDIVIDUAL, AND SOCIETY 95 

ing and to develop educational democracy. What it may 
lose in education, it may gain in experience in self- 
government. 

73. Is Education Worth What It Costs?— There is What 
another side to this problem of education. The largest boy or girl 
single item of expense incurred by our state and local ^hi^to 
governments is for schools (§245). How many students ** ployer? 
realize the value of their education and understand, 
from the standpoint of the community, whether it is 
worth what it costs? The public does not act as an 
employer, neither is a student an employee. But even 
for those pupils who do not work Saturdays, it may be 
well to compare the value of the work prepared for school 
on school days with that of service rendered to an em- 
ployer at the week end. Unless a person is industrious 
and trustworthy, he is not wanted by any business man 
and is discharged, because an employer is unwilling to 
pay wages in excess of the value of services that he 
receives. In a sense, the community is like an employer 
that can not discharge an employee who is careless and 
not studious, unless he is guilty of criminal disorder. 

Do most of us realize that our community is paying How many 
for our benefit almost as much per hour as an employer p n ££ s are 
would pay us for first class work on Saturday? Every ^ r n t |7 h r a k t 
time that we do poor work in school, we are cheating our their educa- 

. l i n tlon costs: 

' community just as surely as a boy who shirks and loats 
lis cheating a Saturday employer. If you were the 
employer and were paying out good money for the 
! education of others in this class, how many times in the 
i course of the year do you think that you would fail to get 
your money's worth for the work which they do, or do 
not do, in the classroom? To how many of your com- 
panions would you be willing to pay the twenty cents an 
hour, or whatever the amount may be, that it costs the 
community to educate each one of us in this class? If a 



96 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Obligations 
of the 
youth 
to the 
community. 



boy spends only fifteen minutes a day preparing each 
lesson, is inattentive in class, and at the end of the 
month passes an examination at sixty per cent, is he 
worth the twenty cents an hour which the city is paying 
for his education? Ask yourself this question : If you had 
the money which the community spends every week on 
your education in one class, would you spend it for the 
work you do and the education you get, or would you 
spend it for something else? 

Hasn't the community the right not only to expect 
but to demand that every boy and every girl should give 
back value received in regularity, in attention, in industry, 
and in progress? If true relations are two-sided (§7), 
what right has any person to expect a community to 
give him an expensive training which he has not enough 
sense to appreciate? Even if the individual pupil has 
no idea of obligation, ought not the community, through 
its schools, to exercise its authority and compel the student 
to do work good enough to justify its large expenditures 
of money? 

References 

1. Methods of study. Clakk, The High School Boy, 40-50. 

2. Note-taking. Kitson, How to Use Your Mind, 22-38. 

3. Conditions favorable for study. Whipple, How to Study 
Effectively, 7-12. 

4. Definite suggestions on lesson preparation. Whipple, How 
to Study Effectively, 15-22. 

5. Discrimination in selection and use of material. Whipple, 
How to Study Effectively, 22-26, 32-33. 

6. Examinations. Kitson, How to Use Your Mind, 183-194. 

7. Examinations and grades. Claek, The High School Boy, 
56-75. 

8. How we reason. Kitson, How to Use Your Mind, 118-137. 

9. Training and spare time of community leaders. Haynes 
and Matson, Community Recreation Program (Cleveland Recrea- 
tion Survey), 27-33. 



CLASS, INDIVIDUAL, AND SOCIETY 97 

10. The cost of educating a boy or girl. Clark, Financing the 
Public Schools (Cleveland Education Survey), 23-63. 

*McMurry, How to Study. 

*McMtjrry, The Method of the Recitation. 

tCoLViN, The Learning Process. 

*B aglet, The Educative Process, especially Parts I and VI. 

*Dewey, How We Think. 

*Dewet, Democracy and Education. 

* Henderson, Education and the Larger Life. 

Questions 

1. After discussing the following questions, write a short paper 
on how to study and prepare a lesson. How is each of your lessons 
assigned? Is the lesson assigned in such a way that you have no 
difficulty in knowing what is wanted the following day? Do you 
have a regular method of taking the assignment and keeping it? 
How do you study a lesson, for example, in citizenship or in mathe- 
matics? After you begin to study, do you find that you are obliged 
to hunt for books, notebooks, pencils, rulers, or other things with 
'which you should have started? How often do you allow other 
-things to interrupt either by stopping your work altogether or by 

breaking into it continually? Can you suggest a method of study- 
ing any lesson that will give you better preparation in a shorter 
time? 

2. Name some of the essentials without which a student can 

j not do good work. What attention must be given to the following 

subjects: (a) regular periods for study, (b) amount of concentration, 

(c) learning continually better methods of study, and (d) honest 

, and thorough preparation of each day's work? What can you do 
] to make the class work & success? 

3. Explain three different types of classroom method. Show 
the disadvantages of the short question and answer method. In 
what subjects and under what conditions can the topic method be 
used? How can the topic recitation method be improved (a) by 
discussion, (6) by the use of development methods, (c) by con- 
sidering definite projects, and (d) by treating the topics as prob- 

! lems to be worked out logically and completely? 

4. Select a topic, and make a list of the points which you wish 
to include under that subject. See if you can group them under 
three or four heads according to their similarities. If you can, 

*Primarily for teachers. 



98 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

notice which group ought to be treated first and what point within 
that group makes the best introduction. In what order can the 
other material of the topic be used most effectively? 

5. If a student knows the textbook, but only the textbook, 
does he really know the subject? What kind of books should be 
secured for outside reading? If outside reading must be reported 
every week, when should the reading be done? Why must it be 
completed on time? Show why outside reading must be done 
honestly and carefully if a student is to be a good school citizen. 
How should material from outside reading be outlined and organ- 
ized for a report, if the report is not written? 

6. Why is it well for us to know that we shall be examined? 
What is the value of a review? What methods would you use in 
reviewing history? Algebra? Science? English? Why should a 
student try to ask himself questions before a class recitation or to 
imagine the kind of questions a teacher will ask on examination? 
What methods of preparation will help most in answering questions 
correctly, briefly, and with material well arranged? 

7. Why should an examination be a test of character as well as 
of knowledge? Why is a person who cheats in examination cheat- 
ing only himself? How advanced must a class be before the teacher 
may leave it without danger that the members will cheat? If a 
teacher is not in charge of an examination, who should be? Should 
it be the individual student or the group of students in the class? 
What is the problem in each case? 



CHAPTER VII 
GROUP METHODS AND ORGANIZATION 

. Parliamentary law 

a. Organization of school groups 

b. Methods of conducting meetings 

c. Main motions and their amendment 
*d. Other motions 

e. Use of parliamentary law in school 

. Constitution of a high school student body 

a. Objects and character 

b. Student organization 

(1) Consulting councils of students 

(2) Governing boards or councils 

(3) Student committees 

(4) Correlation of central body and classrooms 

c. Direct participation of students in government 

(1) Initiative, referendum, and recall 

(2) Adoption of amendments 

Parliamentary Law 

! 

74. Organization of School Groups. — No group can Rule ^_ 
3t as a body unless it is organized. As a rule new mem- tion, order, 
ers are added or old members are dropped according to 
)me well-known plan, and the place of each member in 
le group is fairly well understood, if not clearly blocked 
at in rules. A set of rules or laws, however, has been 
eveloped for the use of the more formal debating societies 
jr deliberative assemblies, that is, for those who discuss 
juestions or decide upon rules of action. Since one of 
le earliest and best known of these assemblies was the 
English Parliament, we call this body of rules "parlia- 
lentary law" 

99 



„ _ _ __ j — — . 

and debate. 



100 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Ways and 

means of 

organizing 

groups. 



How a new 
convention 
or society 
may be 
organized. 



The 
quorum 
and order 
of business. 



In a sense any group is self-organized, because it has 
agreed upon a certain organization and certain forms 
that it will use in carrying on its work. Probably the 
members of an old and well established group do not 
feel that they share in its organization since it is difficult 
for them to change forms that may have been in use for 
years or possibly for centuries. With a new group or 
society, however, old customs do not determine the exact 
form in which the society shall be organized or the exact 
methods which it shall employ. Opportunity is given, 
therefore, for developing new forms or for deciding 
between old forms of organization, and for selecting the 
type of work and the ways of working that are preferred 
by the members of this new group. In school, parlia- 
mentary law can therefore be used when a new class 
organization is started and when work of a civic nature 
is to be undertaken. 

In organizing a society some person must take the 
lead. That person or one of his friends is likely to be 
temporarily in charge of the meeting. 1 That person may 
be selected as temporary chairman or he may preside 
while a temporary chairman and a secretary are selected. 
The choice of permanent officers may then be left until a 
constitution has been prepared. If the group or society is 
simply one of a large number of similar organizations to 
be found in other schools and communities, there may be 
a type form of constitution which the group will adopt 
with such changes as local needs may require. 

75. Methods of Conducting Meetings. — In a delibera- 
tive assembly or in a school society, the purpose of the 
organization would be defeated if the discussion and work 

1 A national political convention meets for the nomination of a presi- 
dential candidate, and is opened by temporary officers, who have been 
selected by the national committee of that party. As soon as the con- 
vention organizes, however, it chooses permanent officers of its own, 
and possibly selects new committees for carrying on the work of the 
convention. 



PARLIAMENTARY LAW 101 

were too much "cut and dried." Nevertheless, there 
must be a regular order in which business is undertaken. 
At a meeting of the organization, the time is divided 
accordingly. After routine business has been considered, 
including the reading of the minutes of the last meeting, 
attention is given to new business. It is not possible, 
however, for a society to transact business unless a definite 
percentage of its members are present and ready to act. 
Such a percentage is known as a quorum. Ordinarily a 
quorum is a majority of the total membership of the 
group; but, if it is difficult for so many to gather at one 
time, a smaller number may be permitted to act. 

When the proper time arrives, opportunity is given for ^ow^a ^ f 
consideration of questions in which the body is interested, a club ob- 
Regular methods should be followed, in order that fair ^^ m 
opportunity be given to all and that the business be 
transacted in the most satisfactory manner. Only 
members should be allowed to take part in the work 
of the group. A member who wishes to do so must 
wait until another member has finished. He may then 
ask the presiding officer for opportunity to speak. This 
privilege is technically known as " having the floor." 
To obtain it he rises and addresses the presiding officer 
as "Mr. President" or "Mr. Chairman" or "Madam 
Chairman, ' ' as the case may be. When he has been recog- 
nized by the chair, that is, by the presiding officer, he 
;may bring before the assembly anything that is in order 
according to the rules. 

76. Main Motions and Their Amendment.— Business Character 

and torm 

] is usually introduced by a motion, which is a proposal in of main 
definite form for the consideration of the assembly. m ° 1 

1 When a member makes a motion, he not only states his 
proposition briefly and clearly, but he also gives his 
reasons for bringing it before the assembly and urges 
the advantages of taking such action as he proposes. 



102 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Considera- 
tion of a 
main 
motion. 



Nature and 
limitations 
of amend- 
ment. 



Supple- 
mentary- 
motions 
debatable 
and not 
debatable. 



The motion is always introduced by the words, " I move." 
Sometimes, incorrectly, a motion is introduced by the 
phrase, "I move you," a form which should never be 
used. After a motion has been made, it must be seconded 
by some other member before it is regarded as properly 
before the society. 

After a motion is made in regular order, and properly 
seconded, the proposition that it brings before the house 
is the only business which the house may consider, though 
new points may be introduced, provided they are amend- 
ments or proposals to do something with the motion 
already made. At this point it is customary to discuss 
the proposals offered in a main motion. As stated above, 
no speaker should be allowed to discuss the proposition 
unless he has addressed the chair and has been recognized 
by the chair, and therefore has the floor. As long 
as a speaker has the floor, he should not be interrupted 
unless he has exceeded the time limit set for such a 
speech, or unless he is out of order, that is, unless he has 
broken some rule. 

If some member of the society believes that the motion 
should be changed in some respect, he proposes an 
amendment, which is not a main or original motion but a 
suggested alteration in the main or original motion. 
If still further changes seem desirable, an amendment of 
an amendment may be proposed; but no further amend- 
ments may be made to that part of the original motion 
which has now been amended. That is, there can be only 
one amendment of an amendment. This does not mean, 
however, that the original motion may not be amended in 
several different places by several different amendments. 
77. Other Motions.— Besides amending a main motion, 
many things may be done with it or proposed for it. 
Someone may suggest that the motion should be laid 
on the table. If adopted, the main motion may not again 



PARLIAMENTARY LAW 103 

be considered unless, at a later meeting, it is taken from 
the table. Among the motions that are not debatable 
are the motion to adjourn and the previous question. 
The previous question is a motion, the purpose of which 
is to learn whether the society wishes to stop debate 
upon the original motion and take a vote upon it. If the 
previous question is passed, the original motion comes 
before the assembly for a decision or vote. Many motions, 
including all original motions, may be amended by such 
motions as laying on the table and the previous question, 
but some may not be amended. A motion to adjourn 
may not be amended, although it may be changed to 
adjourn until a particular time. 

When the discussion is ended, the chairman asks the Metagte 
secretary to read the motion, or he restates it, and then 
calls for a vote. Ordinarily he asks that those who 
approve " signify by the usual sign," that is, by saying 
"aye." He then says "those opposed the same." Those 
who do not favor the motion make use of the usual 
i negative sign, "no." A rising vote may be called for, or 
! even a roll call. If a motion is carried, the chairman says, 
! " It is so ordered." If not adopted, he says, " The motion 
is lost." No motion is passed unless it represents a 
] majority vote of those present. The rules of a society may 
require a still larger vote; for example, in many state 
! legislatures, no bill can be passed in either chamber unless 
it is approved by a majority of those elected to that house. 
When the United States Senate takes a vote on a treaty, 
it is not ratified unless approved by two-thirds of those 
present. After a motion has been adopted, it can be 
brought before the society again at the same session 
only by a motion to reconsider, and a motion to reconsider 
can be made only by a person who has already voted 
with the majority. 

78. Use of Parliamentary Law in School.— Few clubs 



104 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Limited 
use of 
parliamen- 
tary law in 
ordinary 
assemblies. 



Advantages 
of studying 
parliamen- 
tary law in 
citizenship 
classes. 



Distinc- 
tively educa- 
tional and 
distinc- 
tively 
student 
groups. 



Problems 
of student 
activities. 



school societies, or class meetings observe parliamentary 
rules as carefully as is desirable. The ordinary forms of 
parliamentary law are learned easily, however, and with 
a little practice can be used without difficulty by any 
group of young people. Although the routine methods 
prescribed by parliamentary law seem slow and cumber- 
some, if much business is to be done, they are fairer and 
in the end more satisfactory than a hit-or-miss discussion 
of proposed changes. 

Classes in civics, and especially in school citizenship, 
should be organized with officers. Opportunity should be 
given to learn the names and forms of ordinary motions 
and actually to practice parliamentary procedure. School 
problems might furnish material for such discussion. 
Possibly some important subject connected with current 
events may be considered to advantage. 

Constitution of a High School Student Body 

79. Objects and Character.— The primary purpose of 
a school as an organization must be educational. Within 
a school there must be smaller groups also distinctively 
educational in character. Among these are the divisions 
into years, such as senior and freshman, into departments, 
such as English and mathematics, and into classes under 
the instruction of individual teachers. In addition to 
these distinctively educational groups, there are many 
school organizations of students whose purpose is incident- 
ally educational but primarily social, using the term social 
in a broad sense. The largest of these is usually a student 
body organization which consists, theoretically, of all 
students in the school. 

It is impossible for any one student to specialize in all 
student interests and it requires special effort for a majority 
of students to participate in any school activity, such as 
football, tennis, debating, or swimming. Only a few can 






CONSTITUTION OF A STUDENT BODY 105 

take part actively in competitive contests. The many 
must be content to show an active interest in the games 
and "meets" in which especially trained representatives 
of the school compete. 

The object of student body organization is to aid those Some pur- 
who may become successful contestants, to stimulate the student 
interest of all pupils in student affairs of a competitive ° y * 
nature, to secure their cooperation in working out school 
problems of a general character, to promote those ideals 
for which the school stands, and to create a wholesome 
atmosphere of school enthusiasm and spirit for anything 
that concerns the whole school. A student association 
should aim to unite all the students of the school into a 
single body that studies school problems and activities 
and is determined to make its own school the best in 
existence. 

80. Consulting Councils of Students.— In order that a jjgjj^j or „ 
large number of students may act as a body, it is necessary Iganization 

& ; . . . , J, i in our high 

that they have a single association with officers or a central schools. 
committee in charge. In the high schools that have stu- 
dent associations, the province of these organizations is 
ordinarily limited to supervision or direction of a few 
student sports and activities. 

Usually there is some central council or board. This Selection, 
may be made up of one representative from each of the tion, and 
major sports and of representatives from the four classes. C o6 P erating 
Such a council is little more than a cooperating body and JgSSta. ? 
has comparatively little power. It keeps in touch with 
the different interests and activities carried on through 
the school. Important among these are football, baseball, 
basketball, and track. The members of the council are 
ordinarily chosen by the students interested in particular 
sports, with the advice and consent of the administrative 
officers of the school. On these councils there are always 
faculty representatives to guide and help the students. 



106 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Extent of 
student 
self-gov- 
ernment, 
and of 
school gov- 
ernment by 
students. 



81. Governing Boards or Councils.— In a fairly large 
number of high schools, there is a governing council or 
board which directs or controls student body affairs and 
activities. Most of these communities have student self- 
government. That is, under the direction and supervision of 
the school authorities they manage student affairs. In a 
very few high schools, the student association is allowed 
to go farther than this. There is not only a governing 




Copyright, Underwood & Underwood 

High School Students Holding an Election 

council or board, but also a student court. Possibly the 
student council or board may act as a court for determin- 
ing the guilt or innocence of students who break laws of 
the school. In these few schools which have school 
self-government, therefore, the student organization not 
only takes full control of distinctively student activities, 
but it aids the school administration in the enforce- 
ment of school rules, and in the trial and punishment of 






CONSTITUTION OF A STUDENT BODY 107 

offenders who break rules of the school or of the student 

body. 

In a few schools the board or council is made up of a ^ticm 
president, one or more secretaries, and chairmen of bersofa 
important committees. Members of the council or board countii . 
may be selected for one semester or for a year. They are 
usually chosen from the senior class or at least from the 
upper classes. Ordinarily these officials are elected either 
with the approval of the school authorities or solely by the 
students themselves after nominations have been approved 
by the principal and vice principal. In many schools, 
no person may be a candidate for any important office 
unless he is taking full work and has a good standing. 
As the duties of these offices are likely to interfere greatly 
with studies of the councillors, it is essential that student 
officials should have had grades considerably above the 
average. Nominations of the commissioners are usually 
made by petition, a primary election is held, and in a final 
election the officials are chosen by ballot. These elections 
give valuable training in and for democracy. 

In many schools the governing body of the student Commi^ 
organization is made up of a commission, which selects of student 

^„, .. 'vi i+ govern- 

its own chairman. One of the commissioners is likely to ment . 
look after finance, a second after athletics, a third after 
debating, and a fourth after publications. If there are 
five or seven commissioners, the others care for other 
activities that are especially important for the students 

of that school. 

82. Student Committees.— In addition to the central Composi- 

• . -.-, tion of 

board or council, schools with student organization usually committees 
have other student officials and a number of committees. em1ng g ° V " 
In a school that uses the commissioner system, each com- boards. 
missioner is likely to be the chairman of a small com- 
mittee. x One school uses the following plan: Each 

i Compare this plan with that of the President's cabinet (§261;, the 
members of which are heads of separate departments. 



108 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 






member of the board has his own committee. On each 
committee are a faculty advisor and a student from each 
of the four classes of the high school. The class treasurers 
are on the finance committee and a special athletic 
representative of each class belongs to the athletic 
committee. 



Lack of 
uniformity 
in student 
organiza- 
tion. 



Need of co- 
operating 
organiza- 
tions. 




Four Minute Speakers' Organization — Manual Arts 
High School, Los Angeles, California 

A study of student organization in many high schools 
shows that there is absolutely no uniformity in the type 
of organization that is in use, in the extent of power 
exercised by the student body, in the form of committee 
organization, or in other work that is attempted through 
student officials or groups. 

83. Correlation of Central Body and Classrooms. — 
A central governing board of students is likely to be as 
little in touch with the whole student body as is a faculty 
council. As it is made up of selected representatives, who 



CONSTITUTION OF A STUDENT BODY 109 

have duties which place them above the other students, 
there is great danger that the members may lose sight of 
the wishes and needs of the students themselves. If 
"a little knowledge is a dangerous thing," a little brief 
authority is equally dangerous to the student who does 
not possess good judgment and sound character. In any 
case, it is desirable that student commissioners should be 
aided by organizations which bring them closely in touch 
with their fellow students on the one hand and with the 
faculty on the other. Faculty advisors of the governing 
council, board, or committees, or faculty members of a 
consulting council, however, will probably prevent the 
central group of officers from doing things that will 
interfere with the educational work of the school. 

If a central council or board is to be fully informed on ^ d ^ r f s 
school sentiment, there ought to be opportunity either ating dass 
for full discussion in general assembly or for much gan i za tion. 
more satisfactory discussion in classrooms. Some schools 
have tried the following plan: A certain class period, 
possibly the second in the morning or the first in the 
afternoon, has ten or fifteen minutes extra per day for 
1 the consideration of any school questions that may arise. 
' In these class groups, important school problems are 
presented and discussed. 

In one school every student in each of the classrooms Ways ^ 
belongs to one of the large committees of which the seven classes and 
school commissioners are chairmen. Each of the seven doners can 
small committees has a representative in each classroom, cooperate. 
For example, the athletic representatives from the eighty 
classrooms of the school serve as a consulting committee 
for the commissioner of athletics. To these class repre- 
sentatives, with the advice of the principal and assistants, 
the commissioners may suggest school problems for dis- 
cussion, in order that all class groups may consider the 
same questions at the same time, rather than deal with 



110 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Advantages 
of coordi- 
nating stu- 
dent coun- 
cils and 
classrooms. 



Adoption 
of student 
ordinances 
by direct 
legislation. 



numerous, dissimilar topics. Suggestions can also be 
made by the classes to the commissioners through the 
class representatives. 

The three advantages of this organization are 
(1) cooperation of the school with the councilors or 
commissioners in a better organization, (2) concentration 
of attention by all students upon those interests and 
activities which are needed and most desired, and 
(3) good training in democracy. Through classroom 
organization in cooperation with the student body, every 
member of every class has an active share in the student 
government of the school. As one school has expressed 
this idea: "If there is a pupil in this school who is not 
fired with enthusiasm, and we can not fire him with 
enthusiasm, then we should promptly 'fire' him with 
enthusiasm.' ' 

84. Initiative, Referendum, and Recall.— The regula- 
tions of the student body must necessarily conform to the 
school law of the state and to all rules made by the 
Board of Education and other school authorities. If there 
are special student rules or ordinances, they should be 
made by the accredited representatives of the students, 
the council or board, and approved by the principal and 
his assistants. For fear that the commissioners may not 
understand what is needed or wanted by the students in 
general, it is wise that a student body constitution should 
provide for the initiative and the referendum. Ordinances 
which the commissioners may not see fit to enact, but 
which students desire, may thus be presented in the form 
of initiative petitions. If these are signed by a certain 
percentage of the students, for example, fifteen per cent, 
they should then be presented to the board or council, 
and, if not enacted by that body, be submitted within a 
comparatively short time, to a vote, the referendum, of the 
student body. A majority of the members voting at 



CONSTITUTION OF A STUDENT BODY 111 

such an election should be necessary to adopt the proposed 
rule or regulation. 

Furthermore, if the members of the central board or Jj^SrieX 
council pass a rule or ordinance which is disapproved by of objec- 
many of their fellows, it should be possible for a certain ordinances, 
percentage of the students to file a petition, requesting 
that this ordinance be presented to the student body for 
its approval or disapproval. The objectionable ordinance 
should then be submitted to popular vote within a short 
time. If a school constitution provides for the initiative 
and referendum, it is seldom necessary to make use of 
those provisions in practice. 

In a high school with student government, recall ^eoffoe 
petitions and elections may be permitted by the student schools, 
body constitution. Although it is probably unwise to 
hold new elections for the possible removal of student 
representatives, it is undoubtedly desirable to have some 
check upon possible use of autocratic power or abuse of 
authority by one who should be a student representative 
rather than a personal dictator. 

85. Adoption of Amendments. — All constitutions JJjJ 
provide comparatively simple means of amendment, p[°J^™J 
\ Amendments, however, should be proposed only at me nts. 
definitely stated periods or at the request of an over- 
whelming majority of the students in the school. Often 
city charters do not permit amendments to be submitted 
oftener than once in two years, and there is no good rea- 
son why school constitutions should be amended more 
frequently than once a semester or once a year. Some 
student body constitutions allow amendments to be pro- 
posed by petition, if signed by one fifth of the members 
of trie association, and provide for a vote within thirty 
school days. 

Sometimes a student has the idea that a student body 
is a law unto itself. Such^an association could not exist 



Need for 



112 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 






Relation 
of student 
body con- 
stitution 
to laws of 
the land. 



without the school and has no reason for existence except 
as a part of the school. As the school is and should be 
pre-eminently an educational institution, the student 
body organization should look after common student 
interests within an educational sphere. As stated above, 
the student body constitution and rules must, of course, 
be subject to the rules of the school, just as the rules of 
the school board are subject to the laws and constitution 
of the state. 

References 

1. Motions and their uses. Gregg, Parliamentary Law, x, xi, 
70-76. 

2. Among classmates. Wright, From School through College, 
113-133. 

3. Student government in school. Leupp, F. E., Scribner's 
Magazine, 54 (1913), 388-394. 

4. High schools and civic development. Hamilton, W. J., 
American City, 10 (1914), 58-63. 

5. Need of a constructive social program for the high school. 
Pound, O., The School Review, 26 (1918), 153-167. 

*Gregg, Parliamentary Law. 
*Roberts, Roberts' Rules of Order. 
*Brown, The American High School. 



Questions 

1. What is parliamentary law? How is a meeting called? 
Who is temporarily in charge of it? What permanent officers does 
it need? In what order is business undertaken? 

2. What is meant by a quorum? Who is allowed to take part 
in any discussion? How does a member address the chair? Has he 
any right to speak without first being recognized by the chair? 
What is a motion? In what form is a motion presented by the 
mover? What else must be done before a motion can be brought 
before an assembly for discussion? How long may discussion con- 
tinue? Mention two ways of ending a discussion. 

3. Study the proper forms for proposing an amendment. How 
many times may an amendment be amended? Name a motion that 
is not debatable. In what form does the chairman put a motion? 

*Primarily for teachers. 



CONSTITUTION OF A STUDENT BODY 113 

How is a vote ordinarily taken? In case of doubt, how does the 
presiding officer decide whether the motion was carried or lost? 
What is a motion to reconsider? By whom may it be made: (a) 
if the motion has been lost; (b) if the motion has been adopted? 

4. If possible, visit a meeting of the city council or commission. 
To what extent was the procedure parliamentary? State motions 
that were made, and summarize arguments that were presented. 

5. Organize the class into an assembly, making sure that the 
right officers are elected in the right way. Have one or two sub- 
jects, possibly current events, for consideration. Make use of each 
one of several different kinds of motions at least once, and see that 
everything is done correctly throughout the whole proceeding, 
including the form of the motions, the way in which they are pre- 
sented and considered, and the way the votes are taken. For the 
sake of practice, hold at least two other sessions during the term, 
and see that every member observes proper parliamentary usages 
in everything that is done. 

6. What is .a student body organization or association? What 
are some of its purposes? What is the difference between student 
self-government and school self-government? In what kind of 
school is it desirable to have a consulting or cooperating council? 
How should such a council be composed? What powers should it 
have? What powers should be possessed by a governing council 
or board in a school which has student government but not school 
self-government? Describe fully the student body organization of 

this school. 

7. What student committees are needed in practically every 
school? If a committee has charge of student affairs, should any 
of its members belong to the faculty? If the commission system is 
used, is it desirable that every commissioner be chairman of a large 
committee? 

8. How does a central board of students sometimes lose touch 
with the student body? How can such a council be kept informed 
regarding faculty wishes? What methods other than those 
mentioned in the text can you suggest for bringing together com- 
missioners and students? 

9. What is meant by the initiative? What is the referendum? 
Should a student body constitution provide for both? What are 
the advantages of the recall? Why must it be possible to amend a 
constitution? Why should it be difficult to do so? 



CHAPTER VIII 

GENERAL STUDENT ORGANIZATION 

1. Class organizations 

a. Members and officers 
, b. Conduct of meetings 

2. Assemblies 

a. School assemblies 

b. Student assemblies 

c. Responsibility for order in assembly 

(1) Leader or group responsibility 

(2) The problem of individual responsibility 

3. Problems of student organization and activities 

a. Needs of democratic schools 

b. What constitutes democratic student organization? • 

c. The problem of school self-government 

d. Real self-government in high schools 
Conclusion — Leadership and group organization 

Class Organizations 
How class 86. Members and Officers. — In addition to the groups 

membership ,-,,■•, , , . , , , 

is decided, that we have already considered, there are a number of 
distinctively student organizations. One type of these 
gatherings is the class meeting, held by seniors or by- 
members of other classes . In a sense t he school determines 
the qualifications of the members of these classes because 
it decides who are freshmen, who are sophomores, who 
are juniors, and who are seniors. Nevertheless, the class 
itself has some leeway in determining its own membership; 
and unfortunately the active membership of any class is 
considerably smaller than the school enrollment of such 
classmen. Opportunity is given to the class to secure a 
hundred per cent enrollment and to exclude those who 
do not belong. 

114 



CLASS ORGANIZATIONS 115 

According to custom there are certain permanent Class offi- 

° cers and 

officers in each class, including the president, one or more their op- 
vice presidents, a secretary, and a treasurer. Committees f °r leader? 
may be appointed for general or special work in which shi P- 
the class is interested. In class meetings opportunities may 
be found for one of the most necessary phases of democratic 
education — the development of leadership. It may seem 
strange that a single member, the president, can exert 
the influence that many class presidents have exerted. 
Sometimes the president gives tone not only to the 
meetings but to the whole class and to its attitude toward 
school affairs and general problems. It is probable that 
such a leader reflects a high standard of conduct on the 
part of his fellows; but undoubtedly he can raise the 
general level of those thoughtless persons who simply 
"follow the leader," and who otherwise would be misled. 
There is no reason why classes should not make a business 
of developing leadership of different types not only in 
their presidents and in chairmen of permanent com- 
mittees, but through many lines of endeavor, such as 
athletics, music, debating, dramatics, and other forms of 
public speaking. 

87. Conduct of Meetings. — The class meetings are Times of 
'usually held "after school". If held within school hours, ings. 
however, the authorities make the rule that they shall 
: not take members from regular classes. Frequently, 
also, it may be necessary for the school authorities to 
decide when class meetings shall not be held, even if they 
do not determine when the meetings shall occur. 

If one is to believe the fragmentary accounts that come ^fS3ts 
to teachers, some class meetings are not conducted wisely in many 

-_. , , T . ,. class meet- 

or well. Little attempt may be made to use parliamen- mgs . 
tary rules, and occasionally there are reports of actual dis- 
order. In many of these gatherings, affairs are not con- 
ducted in a business-like way. If a suggestion is carried 









116 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Different 
kinds of 
school 
assemblies. 



through quickly and without friction, the result may be 
due to cut and dried action on the part of the officers or 
executive committee of the class, or to indifference on the 
part of the other members. Either of these methods 
represents a serious fault. Class meetings are controlled 
almost absolutely by the students. If they want democ- 
racy, let them not neglect this opportunity. 

Assemblies 

88. School Assemblies. — In many schools general 
assemblies of students are a prominent characteristic of 
school life.. Assemblies are of two types, one that is 




Assembly, Junior High School 



PJioto by Brown Bros. 



distinctively educational and one that is pre-eminently 
a student affair. Among the educational assemblies are 
those which are conducted by the school authorities for 
the purpose of making general announcements and of 
explaining school methods or school work. When the 



ASSEMBLIES 11 



<-' 



members of the school gather to hear some distinguished 
speaker, the assembly might be considered an educational 
rather than a student affair, 

Even a musical entertainment might be given for its School 
distinctively educational value. In this class might that are 
come concerts by first-class college orchestras, by college enterfain- 
glee clubs, and entertainments or recitals given by school ment * 
organizations. Plays staged by members of classes in 
dramatics and concerts by high school orchestras or by a 
chorus may be educationally valuable to the students, 
giving them an opportunity to show what is being done 
by special groups within the school, and stimulating the 
participants to do their best before their fellows. When 
an oratorical contest with a neighboring school is to be 
held, it is a good plan to have the home contestants 
appear before the students. All educational assemblies 
in which students take part help to develop a certain type 
of leadership, although that leadership may be of a formal 
nature, as in the part taken by a student in a play. 

89. Student Assemblies. — Some school assemblies Examples 

c °* student 

ought to be conducted by the students for their own sake, assemblies. 

Often they meet for their own affairs as a part of the school 

work, such as the nomination of candidates for student 

body offices. Football rallies are good examples of this 

kind of assembly. Rousing speeches can be given by 

pupils, teachers, and others. Under good yell or song 

leaders, yells and songs can be learned and practiced. 

In such an assembly the boys of the school can be formed 

into a unit that allows them to work off their surplus 

energy. A first-class student body can be one minute an 

: enthusiastic, vociferous group, and the next, at the call of 

the chairman, as quiet and orderly as any body of adults. 

The problem of student body assemblies is very much 

like the problem of class meetings but differs in two or 

three respects. Student body assemblies are usually held 



118 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Character 
and advan- 
tages of 
special 
student 
assemblies. 



Cooperation 
of chairmen 
and school 
authorities. 



within school hours and attendance is compulsory, except 
for those excluded for the common good. The business 
is likely to be of a more important character and the 
need of right methods more imperative than in meetings 
of any one class. Separate meetings of Boys' Leagues 
and Girls' Leagues are especially valuable for the free 
and open discussion of special problems in which the 
boys or girls may be interested. In such assemblies very 
fine opportunities are offered for democratic organization, 
self-direction, the development of leadership, and the 
establishing of proper standards of conduct. Students 
who are really interested in democracy in the school 
should make a study of the different kinds of assemblies 
in order to see what types of popular government can be 
developed in each. They should try to understand in 
what ways a school assembly gives advantages in the 
development of school citizenship superior to those of 
the classroom or any other school organization. 

90. Leader or Group Responsibility for Order in 
Assembly. — It is the practice in some high schools to 
have student body officers preside at all student assemblies 
and many school assemblies. This plan gives valuable 
experience to the commissioners and to other students 
who may appear before the student body. To what 
extent the presiding officer should be asked to preserve 
order is a question that must be decided by each school 
and for each type of assembly. If the work before the 
assembly is of an educational or semi-educational type, 
as in the case of a debate or when the members of a school 
organization appear before the students, discipline should 
be maintained chiefly or wholly by the school authorities. 
The presiding officer and his associates should be asked 
to take as full charge as possible of the meeting, even 
though the general maintenance of discipline is under 
school supervision. 



ASSEMBLIES 119 

In all of these assemblies there are problems of order The 

i . t . . t_ i problem 

and courtesy similar to those which arise in the class- of group 
room. The circumstances, however, are entirely different, ^conduct. 
The group is no longer a small one under the supervision 
of a teacher, but is a large body of students that probably 
does not meet daily, does not look upon itself as a unit, 
and has never developed for itself any ideals of conduct. 
Only when the standards of the school are low or little 
understood, is disorder on the part of one student 
excuse for similar or worse disorder on the part of others. 

Assemblies of different kinds call for different kinds of Standards 

, . ^li.ii • -l j. i_ °* conduct 

response from the students. Conduct that might be in different 
unobjectionable in a distinctively student body assembly assemblies. 
might appear positively insulting if a distinguished 
speaker were addressing the whole school. Undoubtedly 
most pupils possess sufficient common sense to know 
what type of conduct is possible and necessary in 
assemblies of different kinds; but many students do 
not have good judgment and have difficulty in acting 
properly on all occasions. The development of right 
ideals of conduct is not easy and must not be expected 
without tactful suggestions from teachers and student 
officers. Any school may be proud if it has developed a 
fine group spirit and a sense of group responsibility which 
maintains the best kind of order and will not tolerate 
misconduct. 

91. The Problem of Individual Responsibility in Contrast 

. . i • i between 

Assembly. — Anyone who is interested in boys and girls conduct of 
often wonders why circumstances alter conduct with so students 6 
many of them. If a person visits a normal school and Afferent 
follows a class from one student-teacher to another, he conditions, 
notices that an apparently law-abiding, public-spirited, 
and kind-hearted boy or girl may suddenly be trans- 
formed into a disorderly, mean-spirited, and careless 
individual. Being boys and girls they are often thought- 



120 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Individual 
responsi- 
bility and 
school 
democracy. 



What is a 
democratic 
school 
system? 



less, and being in school a few of them feel that order is a 
problem for the teacher and not for the student. Evi- 
dently some pupils have no standards of conduct that 
mean anything to them. They have little self-respect, 
self-control, or sense of responsibility for their own self- 
direction. 

Democracy is self-direction of an organized group. 
It is control, by the group, of itself and of its activities. 
No school can be good in which the rank and file of 
students lack a sense of individual responsibility as well 
as of group responsibility. A school is poor whose 
students have low standards of conduct and need guardians 
to look after them. There are few better standards 
than these: a poor school citizen needs to be watched; 
a good student does not need to be told. 

"Not in the clamor of the crowded street, 
Not in the shouts and plaudits of the throng, 
But in ourselves, are triumph and defeat." 

Problems of Student Organization and Activities 

92. Needs of Democratic Schools. — The American 
nation is the most democratic in existence; the American 
school system is supposed to be the most democratic in 
the world. A democratic nation is not possible without 
democratic homes and a democratic school system; but from 
the very nature of things a nation or a home can not 
be ruled or controlled by all of its members. It must 
have leaders who have special authority. A democracy 
will fail if all share power equally without some organiza- 
tion. A school system must have a superintendent and 
a school board to control its general affairs. A school 
must be under the supervision of a single person, the 
principal. A schoolroom must have its leader and guide, 
whose task is maintenance of order as well as teaching; 
for without order, little knowledge is likely to be gained. 



STUDENT ORGANIZATION AND ACTIVITIES 121 

Good school citizens must have a clearer idea of what Why 
is democratic than is possessed by many adults. These school or- 
questions may be asked: How democratic is it possible |™^ n 
for a school to be? How democratic is it desirable that munity 

matter 

a student body should be? Since the school is an educa- rather than 
tional institution of our society, created for the purpose affair. 6 
of giving instruction to the young, it is not possible for 
any group of students to make rules for the school or to 
decide what the school policies should be. These decisions 
must be left to responsible persons especially selected by 
the community. The traditional form of school organi- 
zation includes a principal, with rather extensive powers, 
one or more vice principals, possibly heads of depart- 
ments, and teachers endowed with authority in their 
own classrooms. In any school in which the principal has 
had wide vision and the teachers have been large-hearted 
and generous-spirited, the system has been successful. Its 
greatest success is attained only when the faculty has the 
whole-hearted support and cooperation of the students. 

93. What Constitutes Democratic Student Organi- Elements 
zation. — If a school is to have student organization at all, racy in 
that organization ought to be as democratic as possible. 1^^ 
In order to discover how democratic and at the same time 
how efficient a student body may be, let us notice the 
nature of good student organization, the necessary 
authority of different officers, and the desirable limits of 
the authority of each. Undoubtedly there should be 
some group of student leaders such as is represented 
by a council or a board. If the commissioners or coun- 
cillors are elected for short terms, as one semester, and 
especially if they are subject to recall, there is little danger 
that they will cease to be truly representative. If the 
constitution gives the students power to elect as repre- 
sentatives those who really do represent them, and if 
they are not sufficiently interested to select persons 



122 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Dangers of 

granting 

student 

officers 

too little 

authority. 



Objections 
to granting 
too much 
authority. 



Extent and 
problem of 
school self- 
government, 



capable of filling those offices, the responsibility for unwise 
direction of strictly student affairs must rest with the 
student body. The first need, therefore, of a democratic 
student organization is to have properly prepared and 
carefully selected representatives of a well organized 
student group. 

A second problem arises in connection with the authority 
possessed by a student body official or by the whole council 
or board. If the student body gives to its central board 
too little authority, the board will fail to accomplish what 
the student to-day wants, and the student government 
will not only seem to be undemocratic but will actually 
be so. Here again we have proof that a group which is 
poorly organized is not successful in carrying on its work. 
Many people think that democracy and good organiza- 
tion are contradictory ideas; but no body of people can 
work together unless they are well organized, and a group 
that is well organized 1 is democratic. 

There is great danger, however, that if a small board 
or council has sufficient authority to carry out the wishes 
and plans of the student body organization, it will confer 
too little with its advisors and consult less than is necessary 
with its committees and other student representatives. 
It may therefore actually be autocratic if it repeatedly 
carries through policies and plans which it believes 
necessary for the success of the student body but which 
students do not really need. 

94. The Problem of School Self-Government — Some 
colleges and a few high schools 2 have adopted some form 
of school self-government. That is a very different thing 
from student direction of strictly student affairs. In 
these schools, student boards are chosen by the students 
or by students and faculty, and have charge of certain 

iA group that is organized from the outside can not be well organized 
as a group. All true organization proceeds from within. 
2 See first part of § 81 above, 



STUDENT ORGANIZATION AND ACTIVITIES 123 

administrative school duties. They may even maintain 
discipline in the halls, and possibly in the classes. Un- 
doubtedly the participation of advanced students in the 
managment of student affairs is desirable, but an active 
share in the government of the school presents an entirely 
different problem. 

A high school is organized for specific purposes. Purposes of 
Important among these are instruction in definite sub- high school, 
jects, disciplinary and memory work of a mental nature, 
scientific or logical training, up-building of individual 
character, development of innate personal capacities, 
comprehension of civic ideals, training in, as well as for, 
true social service, and cooperation among students in 
educational, athletic, or other student interests. Which 
| of these are dominant is immaterial to our present query. 
No school should be organized for any particular pur- 
! pose to the exclusion of the others. It must have such 
an organization as will best meet its needs. 

In the few schools which allow the students to have ™° Uem o{ 
I some share in, or entire control of, discipline, courts are discipline 
\ necessary. Although some schools, notably the small courts. 
1 groups connected with the George Junior Republics and 
: a few others, have been very successful in the trial of 
offenders by courts composed of students, the method 
places upon a student body, and especially upon a few 
students, a responsibility which few student organizations 
or officials can carry satisfactorily. 
95. Real Self-Government in High Schools.— Usually The right 

. spirit 3.S 

students do not realize to what extent they take part in true 
both the organization and the management of a school, emo< 
passively if not actively. Practically every school has 
many rules which it never uses. We do not refer to rules 
that are dead letters, but to rules that are kept for 
emergencies, rules regarding discipline and punishment of 
offences, which are inactive because they are never needed. 



124 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Trials, suc- 
cesses, and 
probable 
limitations 
of student 
democracy. 



The essence 
of good 
school 
citizenship 
and of 
democracy. 



When the spirit of students is so good that rules of that 
type need not be enforced, the students are democratic 
in spirit and actually share in the work of managing the 
school. 

In the preceding sections, numerous cases have been 
cited of self -direction by students, 1 in short, of student 
government. On playgrounds, in halls, and in cafeterias, 
order and success depend far more on the spirit of the 
students than on the enforcement of school rules. In the 
classroom a public-spirited group has numerous oppor- 
tunities to show its good will and make its influence felt 
as a democratic body. Experience proves that adults as 
well as youths who wish a larger share in directing groups 
of which they are members must use what they have, 
must constantly try better and more democratic ways and 
methods, and must be willing to make haste slowly. Stu- 
dents who are learning self-government will, of course, not 
make the same success of any undertaking in democracy 
as people of greater experience and wisdom. But if we 
wait until we know how to do things well, we never shall 
learn. Therefore experiments in democracy, undertaken 
with caution, should not be delayed until boys and girls 
can manage them successfully. If students are sufficiently 
interested, public-spirited, and intelligent to conduct 
minor experiments in student democracy, there is no 
reason why they should not have opportunities on a 
larger basis. 

It is well for individual students, for classes, and for 
schools to understand that school citizenship consists 
chiefly in carrying on regular work and activities. 
Especially should students see first that school citizenship 
consists in obeying the spirit of school rules in order that 
school laws may be unnecessary, or in order that, if they 
are formulated, they need not be enforced. Secondly 

iFor example, consult §§54, 55, 61, 70, 72, 79-83, 90-94, 96. 



STUDENT ORGANIZATION AND ACTIVITIES 125 

they should see that the spirit of the school, its work, 
and its success depend upon the scholars and their spirit 
rather than upon forms of self -supervision or of self- 
government. 

96. Conclusion— Leadership and Group Organiza- Jgemj 

ti on# From what has already been said, we realize that ship and 

groups, large and small, must be organized. No organi- gaSSons. 

zation is possible without leadership; no good leadership 

is possible without preparation and some innate capacity. 

For one leader that is developed, however, there are a 

dozen who have plenty of ability. Usually some one 

trait is lacking. It may be ambition, enthusiasm, or 

school spirit, or some personal characteristic, such as 

self-control, patience, or ability to cooperate. A group 

which tries to organize without leadership is attempting an 

impossible task. If a group is large, it will probably be 

made up of smaller groups set aside for special purposes. 

Within a school such groups may be school classes, glee 

clubs, forestry clubs, or other student societies. 

Probably the classes are more important than all Classroom 
student associations taken together, because they occupy tion and 
a dominant place in school work and activities The ea ers p * 
organization of a classroom is prescribed by the very 
nature of its tasks, and arranged in advance by the school 
authorities. Yet, within a class, leadership is possible 
for the student who prepares his work best, for the student 
who thinks, and for the student who knows how to 
organize his material. In connection with the class there 
ought also to be some idea of student self -direction and of 
student organization. Here again, leadership is desir- 
able and necessary. The task of leadership falls to him 
who can lead. He may have been promoted as reward 
for hard work, from a minor position to one of greater 
importance; he may even be a pupil whose grades are 
low. Problem-solving (§ 65) is part of every day's work 



Obligations 
of a good 
leader. 



Relation- 
ships of a 
leader and 
follower. 



126 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



if one is really alive; but only a few of us solve many 
problems, and still fewer can help others to wise solutions. 

No one has a right to ask for leadership unless he is 
prepared to fill, to the best of his ability, the position for 
which he is selected. Every leader should watch for 
chances not only to grow, but also to make his work 
larger and finer. As leader of a group, he owes to it 
something better than was given by the previous leader. 
He must be on the watch, however, against introducing 
novelties merely for the sake of change. He must give 
his fellows something worth while. 

The relationships of a leader are more important and 
more numerous than those of the ordinary follower. 
Undoubtedly there is an instinct for leadership in all 
human hearts, and the right kind of school will tend to 
develop that trait in those who hold any place of influence. 
It should not neglect, however, the rank and file, who can 
do some work of the leadership type, if it is only to bring 
to class an idea, gleaned from some book of reference, 
which is valuable for class work. There is also implanted 
in all human hearts an instinct of submission and self- 
abasement. We like to be well led, and, if we are well 
led, we follow gladly. The group should take advantage 
of these desires which spring from the oldest and deepest 
of human motives. He who aspires to power must accept 
the responsibilities that go with high position. We not 
only expect but demand of our Presidents accomplish- 
ments of which you and I are incapable. As President 
Grover Cleveland said, " A public office is a public trust." 

References 

1. What Mississippi Valley schools stand for. Davis, C. O., 
The School Review, 28 (1920), 263-284. 

2. Pupil government. Sharp, Education for Character, 56-73. 

3. Democratic high schools — the high school and the boy. 
Lewis, Democracy's High School, 28-50. 



STUDENT ORGANIZATION AND ACTIVITIES 127 

4. The democratic high school and the girl. Lewis, Democracy's 
High School, 51-79. 

5. The demand for a citizen's high school. Munroe, New De- 
mands in Education, 186-201. 

6. Social training through school group activities. King, I., 
Annals of the American Academy, 67 (1916), 13-25. 

' 7. Shaping education to citizenship. Baldwin, Education and 
Citizenship, 27-54. 

*Hall, Educational Problems, I, 301-323. 
*National Bureau of Education, 1915, Bui. 8, 7-31. 
*Sharp, Education for Character. 
*Lewis, Democracy's High School. 
*Craddock, Classroom Republic. 

Questions 

1. Who are members of the class or year to which students m 
this classroom belong? What offices does the freshman class have? 
What student has been elected for each? Name the class com- 
mittees and tell about the work of each. When are class meetings 
held? How well are they conducted in this school? 

2. Name two types of assemblies. Are both held in this school? 
Give at least five kinds of school assemblies. How is a student 
assembly different from a school assembly in its purposes, personnel, 
methods of procedure, and problems of conduct? Discuss any one 
problem of conduct for school assemblies. What opportunities for 
leadership and self-direction are given by regular and by special 
student assemblies? To what extent should appeal be made to the 
individual rather than to the group for good conduct in assemblies? 

3. What is a democratic school system? Why do we need demo- 
cratic schools? Why are democratic schools a community matter, 
not a student affair? In order to have a democratic yet efficient 
student body, explain (1) what kind of student organization is 
necessary, (2) how much authority the different school officials 
should have, and (3) what should be the limits and the checks upon 
the authority of each student official. 

4. Explain the problem of high school self-government (1) in 
connection with purposes for which a public school exists, (2) neces- 
sary administrative organization of a high school, and (3) difficulties 
in creating successful school organizations of students, in maintain- 

*Primarily for teachers. 



128 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

ing law and order through student control, and in administering 
school laws justly through student bodies and courts. 

5. In what ways do students help to govern classes? List five 
student activities controlled largely or solely by students. Under 
what circumstances should students be allowed a constantly larger 
share in the direction of affairs? Under what circumstances do we 
usually find that student attempts to direct affairs have been quite 
unsuccessful? State as briefly as possible what you mean by good 
school citizenship and school democracy. 

6. What qualities are specially necessary for a leader? In 
your opinion, which quality is most commonly lacking? If a 
school is to be democratic, why should leadership and self-direction 
be developed in classrooms? Give some of the obligations of a 
good leader. Why is the instinct of submission quite as necessary 
and important as the instinct of leadership? What did President 
Cleveland mean when he said, "A public office is a public trust"? 

7. Write a short essay on school citizenship. 



CHAPTER IX 
LITERARY AND ATHLETIC ORGANIZATIONS 

1. Literary organizations 

a. The library 

(1) Organization and rules 

(2) Ways of finding books and using materials 

b. Debating 

c. School publications 

d. Dramatics and pageantry 

e. The honor society 

2. Physical education and activities 

a. Importance 

b. Regular school requirements in physical education 

c. Play activities and home work 

d. Military organization 

e. Athletics 

(1) Importance of school athletics 

(2) Athletic contests 

3. Other school organizations 

a. Music 

6. Departmental and technical clubs 

c. Social service organizations 

(1) General 

(2) Girls' Leagues . - 
Conclusion 

Literary Organizations 
97. The School Library and Its Rules.— The library Conditions 
is one of the most important of the school institutions, which a 
In most schools, books may be drawn for only one day or * e S\y 
one-half day at a time, but the students may go to the usable - 
shelves and use books for reference during any period. 
In many public libraries in America the stacks in which 
books are kept are not open to the public. Why? 

129 



130 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Because under those conditions books are frequently 
injured, if not actually stolen. And yet, if a library is 
to be used easily and well by those who need it for study, 
its readers must have access to shelves. Evidently a 
high standard of conduct is necessary for the proper use 
of library books in the school and in the community. 




Grammar School Library 



Why selfish 
use of books 
is a serious 
offense. 



If a student hides a volume or takes away a book 
needed by others, it is easy to see how his carelessness or 
selfishness injures a whole group. Severe penalties are 
sometimes enforced against students who take books 
contrary to rules. If a book is required by members of 
a large class on a particular day, the removal of that book 
during that time is a serious offense. The fact that later 
a student returns such a book to the shelves does not 
make him less guilty. It has been stolen during the time 
that it was most needed. 



LITERARY ORGANIZATIONS 131 

98. Ways of Finding Books and Using Materials.— beaming 
Many students who would never dream of taking books library 
for their own use, except as provided by the school rules, ^eds. 
do not make proper use of them for reference. They 
have never learned how to find books in a library, a study 
in which they should have had some guidance and help. 1 
After locating a book, they do not know how to find the 
material which they need. Tables of contents are 
unexplored areas to these novices, and indexes apparently 
exist for the purpose of using valuable paper. Teachers 
are compelled to give many students specific references 
not only for special assignments but also for all regular 
requirements. Such students have not learned to look 
up anything for themselves; they must be guided as the 
little child learning to walk needs to hold the hand of 

his nurse. 

Every high school student should learn as soon as H^ suc " 
possible in his course how to locate books on the shelves, student 
how to find material in books, and how to select things HbSJy. 
that he wants from the reference material that he has. 
In order to do this, a student must first know what he 
wants to find. He should have some idea of the kind of 
book in which he is likely to find it. To save time he 
should consult tables of contents and indexes. He should 
be able without difficulty to choose the material that 
belongs to the subject he is investigating, and he ought to 
be able to organize his material as he gathers it or as soon 
as he has secured the necessary facts. As stated above 
(§67), unless each student does this work for himself, and 
does it when it should be done, he may be guilty of cheat- 

i Most libraries use the Dewey system of classification. That system 
divides books as follows: 

000-099 General works 500-599 Natural science 

100-199 Philosophy 600-699 Useful arts 

200-299 Religion 700-799 Fine arts 

300-399 Sociology 800-899 Literature 

400-499 Philology 900-999 History 



132 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



What a 
debater 
must learn 
to do. 



Value of 
interest in 
debating. 



ing. At least, he deprives himself of the growth and 
power which ought to be the chief object of education 
and the greatest ambition of every high school student. 
99. Debating. — Debating is especially valuable as a 
school activity because it puts into practice educational 
principles at the same time that it gives opportunity for 
competitive public effort. During the ten years that the 
writer served as a debating coach, many of his debaters 
were drawn from his own classes. If anv of those student? 
were asked to compare the training which they obtained 
in class with that which they secured when preparing a 
debate, they would probably say that they gained more 
from debating than through class work. In class the 
student is chiefly a follower; in debating he is likely to be a 
constructor. He must make his own outlines, gather most 
of his own material, organize his own facts in a logical 
way to prove his points, and learn to present his argu- 
ments forcefully and effectively. Most difficult of all, he 
must be prepared to refute promptly the arguments 
presented by his opponents. 

An exceptional debater is as rare as an exceptional 
athlete, but good debaters are common. In every school 
there are five possible debaters for every one that attempts 
to make a team. There is no reason why in even' school 
there should not be large squads of debaters, studying 
and gaining practice on many questions which should be 
discussed between classes or between schools. That 
debating can be made a vital school activity is proved by 
the fact that, during the writer's experience as coach, 
more students of his school attended debates than were 
present at football games. This was largely due to the 
fact that the school had two active, wide-awake debating 
societies. 

100. School Publications. — Students can cooperate 
with the editors and managers of school papers in the 



LITERARY ORGANIZATIONS 133 

important task of securing material of interest to the ™*£L 
school and of preparing accounts that can be used in the tions to a 
school paper. Even if three-quarters of these contribu- p C ap ° e °. 
tions never see print, those who undertake the work will 
be far more than repaid by the attempt. Especially is 
this true if all material that is worth criticising is examined 
and its merits or defects explained by someone competent 
to judge. 1 

The selection of editors and managers should be made in ^ticn 
a democratic way, and should be placed upon a competitive and 

, . ,. ii - managers. 

basis. In some schools, publications are managed almost 
entirely by cliques, and an editor-in-chief selects his 
successor from one of his subordinates, without giving 
equal chances to others. Undoubtedly the best leaders 
are those who have been trained within the work. Few 
adults would be able to write editorials, direct the policy 
of a school paper, and make wise selection of material to 
be published. Work so important to the school ought to 
be given, therefore, to the person best qualified by experi- 
ence, temperament, literary ability, and qualities of 

1 leadership. The assistants of an editor-in-chief ought 

! also to be selected with very great care. The boy who 
holds the position of business manager on a school publi- 

I cation gains splendid experience, as his work brings him 

j in contact with business men of the community. 

The school ought to value highly the work of the J? t n e s rr o e J a - 
students who devote time and energy to school papers, school and 

iii j_ • • £ those in 

Faculty and student body should encourage training ior char g e of 
) that work and should cooperate in every way possible, publication* 
I both in making contributions and in supporting the 
publications. School editors must remember that they 
are student representatives, responsible both to the 

ilf the school maintains a class in journalism, as a large number do, 
the teacher of journalism will naturally give his attention to the best 
material, and some of his more advanced students can examine the 
remainder, encouraging those reporters or contributors who show 
ability and giving them the help that is most needed. 



134 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



student body and to the school authorities. Leadership 
must recognize its responsibilities. If the school has a 
newspaper, it is desirable that it be a real gazette of news, 
well prepared and edited, and worth the attention not 
only of students but of outsiders who may be interested 
in the school. If the school has a literary publication, 




Board of School Editors at Work 



Exercises 
and celebra- 
tions given 
by school. 



the help of teachers should be enlisted in securing the 
best possible material. In their stories, our best school 
magazines compare rather favorably with some of the 
periodicals sold by the hundred thousand per month. 

101. Dramatics and Pageantry. — Leadership of one 
type may be developed through debating, oratory, and 
other forms of public speaking; leadership of another 
through publications; and leadership of a third type 
through dramatics and pageantry. At least a third of the 
American high schools have classes, student groups, or 
special committees in dramatics. Probably every high 
school in the United States has some dramatic readings 
or plays presented by students at some time during the 
year. These may be simply of the " Friday afternoon" 
order, chiefly recitations of miscellaneous poems. In 



LITERARY ORGANIZATIONS 135 

other words, there may be no unity to the material 
presented. Patriotic celebrations form a higher type of 
public speaking of a dramatic character because only 
one subject is considered. Exercises of this type usually 
include patriotic music and speaking by some distinguished 
citizen of the community, or possibly by a visitor. 

When a school has a dramatic club, a class in oral Need of 
English, or a class in dramatics, its work is likely to be presenta- 
superior to the impromptu performances given in other Material, 
schools. One of the greatest needs of modern education 
is more stress upon oral English. All students ought to 
be taught to stand squarely on their feet before their 
fellows and deliver a message in a clear, direct, concise 
way. Even if the material is memorized, the experience 
in presentation is of high value. Possibly the literary 
clubs, which are found in almost all high schools, may be 
the means of filling this great educational need. 

Most high schools give school plays. Possibly these are Character 

, , % and value 

offered by the senior class as a part ol the commencement of school 
program, even if presented much earlier in the year. pays * 
Plays of this kind serve the double purpose of developing 
the talent of the class and of raising money for the school 
or for necessary expenses connected with graduation. 
Many schools place the net proceeds of entertainments 
and plays in a scholarship fund, which is used to aid 
students within the school or to help them continue their 
studies after graduation. Under proper direction, school 
plays or pageants are of the highest benefit in developing 
dramatic talent, in aiding school spirit, and in bringing 
the school closer to the community. The social value of 
school dramatics can hardly be overestimated. 

102. The Honor Society. — In a large number of high ^honor 
schools, honor societies are found. In a number of others, societies, 
rolls of honor are published and special privileges and 
opportunities are granted for unusual scholarship. If 



136 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



colleges give especial attention to electing graduates to 
membership in the Phi Beta Kappa society, there cer- 
tainly is no reason why high schools should not treat with 
distinction students who do the best work within their 
schools. If a high school is an educational institution, it 
certainly should honor its best scholars. 



How mem- 
bers are 
chosen for 
honor 
societies. 




Some Members op a High School Honor Society 

Some high schools base membership in their honor 
societies solely upon scholarship; others combine scholar- 
ship with leadership. It is easier to make selection of 
students purely on a basis of standing than to determine 
the relative merit of those who have occupied some 
position of influence in student activities. 1 Membership 
is usually limited to those who have grades of at least 
ninety per cent, or of A or 1, in two or more subjects. 
A student who fails in any subject should be ineligible to 
an honor society. 

i Those who give their time and effort for the good of the school 
ought to have concessions made to them either by having leadership 
counted as a basis for selection in the honor society or by having fewer 
subjects required for election to the honor society. 



LITERARY ORGANIZATIONS 137 

Honor societies usually have an emblem. One type of Emblems, 
emblem is given to those who have made good grades for national 
the preceding semester or year, but a special pin or badge s^ety. 
may ordinarily be worn by any student who has been a 
member of the honor society of the school for five or six 
consecutive semesters. A national honor society has 
been proposed. Such an organization would tend to 
establish somewhat uniform requirements for honor 
students, or at least two different types of requirements. 
Honor societies have done much to raise the level of 
scholarship in our high schools. 

Physical Education and Activities 

103. Importance. — The two most important tasks of Need of 
a student in high school are (a) to understand himself as study of 

f human being and (b) to understand his place as a citizen oFb£u>gy. 
mong his fellows. A high school should supplement the 
work of the grades by teaching the youth how to know 
himself better, how to understand his body and its 
processes, and how to make it a more perfect machine. 
The boy or girl needs to know the principles underlying 
the human organism and its functions. Many school 
icourses touch upon this problem. Light is also thrown 
upon it by many topics that are considered in different 
classes. Nevertheless, it is highly desirable that, if pos- 
sible, each high school student should take a course which 
gives him a knowledge of different types and classes of 
living organisms. 1 He needs to know something of the 
general structure of the human body, of life processes, of 
human anatomy, of physiology, and of hygiene. 

In his volume on education Herbert Spencer quotes 
with approval the remark, "the first requisite of life is 

iThe student needs to learn something about cell life. In the study 
of lower animal organisms, he learns life processes which are common 
to all members of the organic world. This helps him to understand 
some of the problems and needs of human beings. 



138 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Need of 
physical 
health and 
endurance. 



Need of 
combining 
work and 
exercise. 



Need of 
mental and 
emotional 
control, 
that is, de- 
velopment 
of character. 



to be a good animal.'" When one reads the biographies 
of great men, one realizes how severe a strain the work 
of the successful captain of industry or statesman places 
upon his body. In most cases, only those of fine physique 
have successfully stood the strain of high position. That 
distinguished American, Theodore Roosevelt, started 
life with a frail body, but built it up by well selected 
exercises, by out-of-door life, and by endurance of hard- 
ships. When he was president, he made the rule that 
every high army officer who wished to retain his rank 
should be able to ride a total of ninety miles in three 
consecutive days. Some of the army men objected 
to this ruling; Roosevelt overruled the objection. His 
own time was so fully taken up that he could not give 
three separate days to the exercise. He started out, 
therefore, with one companion to make the entire trip in 
one day. In the midst of a driving storm he and his aide 
rode the entire distance. . 

Failure is frequently physical failure, and physical 
failure is due no more to poor heredity than to lack of 
proper physical education and training. Many men 
have died from overwork who might have carried the 
same amount of work if they had combined with their 
intellectual or business occupation the proper amount 
and right kind of exercise. 

A successful man or woman needs a good body, a mind 
that has a sane outlook on life, and exercise as well as 
work to keep both in proper condition. As Shakespeare 
says, "'Tis the mind that makes the body rich." No 
truer saying was ever uttered than this, "As a man 
thinketh in his heart, so is he," because we can not 
separate the body from the mind or from the emotions 
that go with the mind, nor can we separate any of them 
from character. The first element of character is nega- 
tive, a matter of self-control. Emotions and thoughts 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND ACTIVITIES 



139 



must be controlled if the body is to be healthy and life 
successful. 

The most important of all arts, that of right living, and 
the most difficult of all types of youthful training, sex 
education and eugenics, are after all matters of character 
rather than of physical education. 

104. Regular School Requirements in Physical Edu- 
cation. — Most schools have classes in physical education. 
During the war much of this work for girls as well as boys 



Right liv- 
ing, sex 
education, 
and 
eugenics. 



Undevel- 
oped char- 
acter of 
the work. 




A School Gymnasium 

was carried on through military organizations. Probably 
few schools make a careful study of the physical condition, 
meeds, and problems of everyone of their students or have 
jdeveloped their courses in physical education as fully as 
were the classical courses of a high school a quarter of a 
century ago. This great branch of education is yet in its 
infancy. 

In the grades physical exercises are usually given within Calisthenics 
the classroom at some time during the day, as a change the grades, 
from the continuous and fairly strenuous work with books. 



140 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Value of 
regular 
formal 
exercises. 



Need of 
"individ- 
ual" and 
of "social 
games. 



It is probable that the play activities naturally under- 
taken by the students on the playground at recess are 
more valuable as physical education than the formal 
exercise taken in school. However, the two should be 
combined. 

By formal exercises we gain a general all-around 
development with particular advantage to the important 
and largest part of the body, the trunk. Good breathing- 
exercises are invaluable, and exercises for the larger 
muscles are necessary if one is to keep in health. As few 
students as possible should be excused from physical 
training. Exceptional students should be studied very 
carefully by experts, and whenever possible, reports of 
physical directors, of school doctors, and of family 
physicians should be brought together to gain the most 
complete knowledge possible and to work out exercises 
needed by that individual. Students should be 
encouraged to supplement this exercise by some of their 
own taken daily. If we expect to live well, we should 
exercise daily as well as eat. 

105. Play Activities and Home Work.— Play should 
be taught. Such a statement causes astonishment 
among young people; but, as already indicated at the 
beginning of Chapter V, play is one of the most important 
activities of life. Play ought to be taught as both a 
personal and a social function. It should be personal 
because the individual should be able to play with but one 
other, since frequently it is impossible to have more than 
one companion on walks or in games such as tennis or volley 
ball. Social games should also be taught. Most of us 
should know how to play such games as baseball, basket- 
ball, or hockey, because adults who do not know how 
to play a game may not bother to learn it. This is 
especially true of girls, some of whom discard games and 
outdoor exercise when they do up their hair. 



t: 

st 

in 

to 



E 
tc 

gi 

lo 

ft 






hi 

ei 

i 
ai 

k 

re 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND ACTIVITIES 141 
Girls more than boys need cooperative activities. Some valu - 

.„ 3,016 lossons 

They need to work and play with others, in order to under- of coopera- 
stand how people work or play together, and how each t]ve Piay ' 
must subordinate some personal preference to the general 
good. Unless we round off our sharp corners, we are apt 
to injure those whom we encounter. Fair play, a just 
consideration for others, and willingness to take punishment 
are valuable results of cooperative play. 

The best physical exercise may be secured in the home, Desirable 

• r ,i ! . . , . ., , and helpful 

it the home is a separate house with its own garden, home 
Work out-of-doors is of infinite value from many angles. actlvlties - 
Easy and attractive household or garden duties are helpful 
to the family and worth while to the worker. If a boy or 
girl undertakes these duties in a spirit of complaint, he 
loses one of his finest opportunities. Caring for lawns and 
flowers, cleaning carpets and bric-a-brac, cooking, and 
even dish washing have their charm, if approached in the 
right spirit. The person who tries to have the greenest 
lawn, or the finest roses, or the tastiest meal is conferring 
ja civic benefit, as well as gaining helpful exercise for 
himself. 

106. Military Organization. — Before the United States General 
entered the war with Germany, the boys of high schools relations, 
began to form military companies. Usually these were 
student organizations which continued during the war 
and afterward. These organizations were encouraged 
by state law for all students, and in some states were 
required for boys. 

On all days when drill was given, boys and girls ordinarily Uniforms 
iwore inexpensive uniforms. As important as the training dress!™ ° rm 
jwas the social value of a single type of dress, thus 
preventing competition between girls who could afford 
little and those who could wear a dozen different and 
rather expensive dresses in the course of a term. In 
schools that had companies of girls and companies of 



142 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 




PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND ACTIVITIES 143 

boys, the honors on parade went quite as frequently to 
the girls as to the boys. 

At the close of the war, high schools were encouraged Nature^and 
to organize military companies under the immediate r. p. T. C. 
supervision of officers of the American army. This organi- ramm s- 
zation has been known as the R. O. T. C, Reserve 
Officers' Training Corps. To each school was detailed 
one or more army officers in active service, usually of the 
rank of captain or higher. In addition, there might be 
sergeants of the regular army. Uniforms, guns, and other 
necessary equipment were furnished to the students. 1 
The training really deserves to be called military educa- 
tion. From a purely disciplinary point of view, this 
R. 0. T. C. organization has been of inestimable benefit 
because it has given the students an insight into the 
meaning of obedience, the nature of true discipline, and 
the value of well organized, prompt service. 

Most military companies, whether under the super- Value of 
vision of the national government or not, are directly organiza- 
managed by student officers. After being organized into *^^ t 
companies, the members are allowed to choose their own officers, 
captains, lieutenants, and other officers. Battalions of 
students select their own colonels, subject to the approval 
of the school and of military authorities. It has thus 
been possible to combine democratic procedure with 
military organization. The officers have had special 
training in leadership as well as in tactics. The develop- 
ment and exercise of leadership has been of the very 
highest value to those students who have proved them- 
selves capable and worthy. 

107. Importance of School Athletics.— Physical devel- Ways in 
opment in school is closely associated with athletic con- athletics 
tests. At least half of the boys in school should find some abie!^" 

i Students who entered the R. 0. T. C. did so for a minimum period 
of two years. They were obliged to exercise on an average three hours 
per week. Instruction was given in tactics and in practical exercises. 



144 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Athletics 
and the 
school. 



Football 
and team- 
work. 



particular form of athletics that makes a strong appeal 
to them. Possibly few boys can excel in competition, 
but the fact that large numbers are in the field, doing 
their level best and striving for something better, prepares 
the exceptional athlete for severe competition and is 
good for the school. If students do not overtrain, 
'practically all forms of athletic competition are valuable. 
Competition gives physical training to the individual, 
promotes school spirit, and develops better ideas of 
cooperation. It is a noticeable fact that most of the 
criticism of athletes and teams comes from those who 
never make the slightest effort on the preparatory field. 
Success is good for a school, but keeping up the right 
spirit in defeat is even better training for school character. 

Undoubtedly athletic contests are among the most 
interesting and distinctive of all student activities. Our 
schools would attract and hold fewer boys than they do 
now if it were not for the sports. A school that specializes 
in athletics, however, and finds most of its leaders and its 
heroes on the athletic field, is losing sight of its true work 
and purpose. Athletics should exist for the school and the 
students, not the school and the students for athletics. 

108. Athletic Contests. — During the fall term, almost 
every high school specializes in football. The members 
of the school are proud of the men who form their eleven 
and who devote hours of practice daily to learning the 
game and upholding the prestige and honor of the insti- 
tution. Probably some students get more education out 
of their football practice than they do out of any two 
subjects. Certainly their experience in teamwork is of 
the highest possible value. Their willingness to make 
personal sacrifice for the sake of the whole group shows 
the kind of spirit that would make school great if 
applied in any one of a dozen ways instead of in just one 
activity. During the World War some of the best of our 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND ACTIVITIES 145 

minor military officers were former football men or coaches. 
The good showing of American soldiers "over there" was 
attributed largely to their training on the gridiron or in 
other severe athletic contests. 

For cooperation there is no high school sport superior Baseball 

. -,, . i anci co- 

to baseball. Every individual must be specially trained operation, 
for a particular type of work. He must work with other 
members of the nine, must learn to be quick, efficient, 
and intelligent. In no other American game does the 
lack of intelligence show more quickly than on the base- 
ball diamond. 1 Basketball, soccer, hockey, and other 
cooperative games should be encouraged. In addition 
to the regular and second teams in these activities, a 
large number of students should be urged to take part for 
their own sake and for the sake of the school. 

School spirit is usually developed in connection with J™ck team 
football. But in the spring, track meets should bring spirit. 
out hundreds of rooters and should arouse the greatest 
enthusiasm. Track activities are so varied that almost 
any school, however small, ought to be able to develop 
four or five men who can " place" in some contest. In a 
track meet in which a large number of schools take part, 
first and second honors are likely to go to that school 
whose men win first places; but, in ordinary contests, the 
school that has more than its share of boys in second and 
third positions will probably carry off the honors of the 
day. Preparation of athletes for track contests should 
interest a large percentage of high school students and 
should be a splendid form of physical education. 

Other School Organizations 
109. Music. — Someone has said, "I care not who The place 

of music 

makes the laws of a nation, provided I can write its in life, 
songs." When Napoleon was a long way from home on 

iThe term "bone-head play" is closely associated with the diamond. 



146 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



General 
musical 
gatherings. 



Musical or- 
ganizations 
— vocal and 
instrumen- 
tal. 



Commercial 
and science 
clubs. 



one of his most severe campaigns, he ordered his bands 
not to play any music that reminded the soldiers of home. 
In the past the martial strains of fife and drum and the 
stirring call of bugle would cheer the hearts and rouse 
the spirit of men about to charge an enemy. One of 
Napoleon's greatest victories is usually credited to the 
" drummer boy of Lodi." 

Most schools that have daily assemblies have some 
music of a patriotic, if not of a military character. Is 
there any reason why patriotic music should not make a 
peace appeal rather than sound a clarion call of war? 
Allied to musical assemblies is community singing, which 
is frequently led by a musical director of a high school, 
and for which some of the best trained singers are high 
school students. As community singing frequently takes 
place in the school auditorium, used as a social center 
(§299), it is in a true sense a school interest and activity. 

Many schools have a separate course in music. 1 Even 
in small schools there are some musical organizations. 
The majority undoubtedly have choruses, glee clubs, 
and quartets, even if there is no teacher to train and 
direct such bodies. Instrumental music is not neglected 
by schools even if lessons are not given for piano or other 
musical instruments. Many schools have bands and a 
considerable number orchestras, besides clubs whose 
members play instruments such as the ukelele or the 
mandolin. Certainly our schools ought to train their 
students as much as possible in music and set for them 
high musical standards. An appreciation of good music 
is a most precious and lasting asset. 

110. Departmental and Technical Clubs. — In some 
schools there are departmental organizations. Prominent 

i Some schools even go so far as to give credit for musical training 
secured outside of school. In this way, they lighten the burden of those 
girls and boys who are compelled to devote several hours a day to 
practice. 



OTHER SCHOOL ORGANIZATIONS 147 

among these are Junior Chambers of Commerce, some- 
times combined with Civic Associations, modeled after 
the Chamber of Commerce of the city. Officers are 
elected, meetings, are held, and commercial or industrial 
problems are examined much as they are by the larger 
organization, although on a smaller scale. The excursion 
is one of the methods used by the clubs or classes in the 
Commercial, Science, or other departments, for the pur- 
pose of studying industrial, economic, or physiographic 
conditions either in the community or outside. 

Among the groups of a more or less technical nature Other de- 
found in different schools are forestry clubs, which not or technical 
only take trips, but help the people of the vicinity to groups 
understand problems of reforestation. Camera clubs 
are sometimes combined with hiking groups. In 
some schools there are wireless clubs, radio organiza- 
tions, and engineering clubs, in addition to others par- 
ticularly adapted to the school or to the community. 
The foreign language groups not only study a language 
in some of its most interesting aspects, but frequently 
give plays or pageants of other lands or of other times. 
Any activity which meets a real need, and which interests 
students without interfering too much with the most 
necessary work, tends to develop individuals and to 
quicken school spirit. 

In some schools there are civics clubs. Usually member- Nature and 

... advantages 

ship is limited to those who are studying civics, but there of civics 
is no reason why other public-spirited students may not c u 
be admitted. Through the club, it is possible for classes 
in civics or citizenship to be brought into closer touch 
with the community and to keep better informed upon 
civic changes within the city, state, and nation. Although 
prominent citizens or distinguished visitors should not be 
expected to address a single class in civics, they are often 
glad of the opportunity to speak before a large club 



148 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Variety of 
purpose in 
student or- 
ganizations. 



Some needs 
of a many- 
sided man. 



Boys' ser- 
vice organ- 
izations. 



Value of 
social ser- 
vice to 
public and 
doer. 



interested in distinctively civic affairs. A civics club 
can be made the focus of many social service activities 
and patriotic undertakings. 

111. Social Service Organizations — General. — Clubs, 
associations, and leagues formed within the school ought 
to be organized largely for the general good. Some of 
them, however, are rather selfish in character and seek 
chiefly to interest and amuse the members. Most of 
those which have been mentioned are chiefly for the 
purpose of training, for the formation of finer character, 
and for the development of social graces and abilities. 

All of us are many-sided. We need to be entertained. 
In fact, we pay a very high price for entertainment. 
We also need development of an educational character. 
This we obtain in part from plays, books, and lectures. 
In order to be well-rounded, a man or woman must have 
interest in his or her fellow beings. We need to know 
what others are doing, what problems others have, what 
they feel and think, and how we can help them. 

There exist in every school some organizations that 
deserve to be called social service organizations, although 
usually they are not philanthropic clubs. The develop- 
ment secured by their members is at least equal to that 
given in any other student activity. The Boy Scouts are 
not organized primarily as school associations, but they 
furnish a fine example of an organization, made up chiefly 
of pupils, that aims to combine welfare work with 
activities for the personal and social development of the 
members. The Hi-Y clubs, composed of high school 
students in the Y. M. C. A., usually reach boys older 
than those in the Boy Scouts. 

Thrift associations, "swat the fly" clubs, student clubs 
in which members look after interests and activities 
needed within the community are but a very few of the 
student groups working for others. The one who does 



OTHER SCHOOL ORGANIZATIONS 149 

this fine type of work is as much benefited by it as the 
person he helps. 

"Not what we give, but what we share, 
For the gift without the giver is bare; 
Who gives himself with his alms feeds three, 
Himself, his hungering neighbor, and Me." 

112. Girls' Leagues. — In many of our schools, Girls' Work of 

• mi r ^ e semor 

Leagues have been organized. 1 he work of these leagues sisters. 
is usually in a true sense social service. In some schools, 
the senior girls meet the incoming freshmen, take them 
about the buildings, find their classrooms, and explain to 
them some of the many things that a freshman needs to 
know upon entering, and that are particularly bewilder- 
ing to the timid student. In some cases the senior sister 
continues to look after the freshman throughout the year. 
Lasting friendships are sometimes formed in this way. 
This work is good for the older girl, and much needed by 
i the younger. 

Groups or committees of a Girls' League may look after Numerous 
different public welfare interests. Among these are clean of Girls' 
grounds, more nutritious food in cafeterias, better bal- eaguef 
anced meals for students who have a selection of a wide 
variety of foods, entertainments for little tots from 
children's homes, and the collection of that part of the 
lunch which is not used by students, for distribution in 
homes or in schools where the need is great. Penny 
lunches provided by school authorities or by public- 
spirited citizens are sometimes managed by officers or 
students of such an organization. 

113. Conclusion. — It is impossible for all schools to Limitations 

. . -r, to the num- 

have the same student organizations. Every school must ber of stu- 
consider its own needs, and provide what it especially j^jonTfn" 
requires. Any school of moderate size which should an ^ sch ° o1 - 



150 ' THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

attempt to meet all of the interests and undertake all of 
the activities mentioned in this volume would fail because 
it would scatter its fire, if for no other reason. A school 
worth while is a school that does not attempt too much, 
but does well what it attempts. 1 

References 

1. The reading of a high school student. Claek, The High 
School Boy, 96-113. 

2. Importance of argumentation and debate. Phelps, De- 
baters' Manual, 1-5. 

3. A school bank. Davis, F. G., School and Society, 12 (1920), 
230-232. 

4. Girls' clubs in the everyday life of the girl. Ferris, Girls' 
Clubs, 251-270. . 

5. The social value of play. Curtis, Education through Play, 
66-84. 

6. Military drill and manhood building. James, G. F., School 
and Society, 10 (1919), 654-658. 

7. The boy scout. West, J. E., Review of Reviews, 54 (1916), 
643-648. 

8. The next generation. Jewett, The Next Generation, 1-6, 
126-135. 

9. Some school games. Curtis, Education through Play, 
192-208. 

10. High school athletics. Curtis, Education through Play, 
220-245. 

11. A football game. Barbour, The Spirit of the School, 
255-267. 

12. A baseball game. Barbour, Wetherby's Inning, 213-238. 

13. The lone runner. Gollomb, That Year at Lincoln High, 
76-90. 

14. Eugenics. Fisher and Fisk, How to Live, 415-446. 

15. Student activities and success in life. Bevier, L., Educa- 
tional Review, 58 (1919), 1-7. 

*Clark, The High School Boy. 

*Curtis, Education through Play. 

*Bobbitt, The Curriculum, especially Parts IV and V. 

*Guyer, Being Well Born. 

"••'Primarily for teachers. *See Appendix B. 



OTHER SCHOOL ORGANIZATIONS 151 

Questions 

1. How are books arranged in the library? Explain how each 
of the following will help a student in the use of a library: (a) specific 
references given in textbook or offered by teacher, (b) knowledge 
of classification of library books, (c) ability to use tables of contents 
and indexes. Explain educational processes that can and should be 
developed in a library. Do you understand why universities have 
expelled students who have hidden or taken library books to which 
a large class has been referred? 

2. In the halls, in the lunch rooms, and on the grounds, what 
can a public-spirited school citizen do for the good of the school 
and for his fellows? Show how selfishness or disobedience of rules 
on the part of one student injures all students. 

3. Show why the debater must understand how to use a library 
very well. Explain the process that a debater must use if he is to 
•organize debate material properly. What school publications are 
there in this school, and what is the purpose of each? Tell who is 
editor-in-chief and who is manager of each. Name at least two of 
the assistant editors or reporters. Of what value is a rejected 
manuscript? Why should stress be placed on oral English in high 
schools? Name three types of plays or exercises and show the 
value of each to the school and to the participants. 

4. What is an honor society? Is there one in this school? If 
so, is membership based upon scholarship alone? What are the 
scholarship requirements? 

5. What are the two most important tasks of any high school 
student? How is a student to gain knowledge of the principles 
underlying the human body and its functions? Why is it desirable 
to study unicellular animals and low animal organisms? Why may 
life failure be chiefly physical failure? How might the danger of 
such failure be avoided? Show how character is a composite of 
many qualities. Why is right living the most difficult of all arts? 
What is the importance of eugenics to young people and society? 

6. What work is given in physical education in the grades of 
this city, and what work is given in the high school? Why should 
every student have the privilege of a careful physical examination? 
Are play activities undertaken under school supervision? If so, 
what do they include and what is the purpose of each game? What 
are the chief social advantages of games? Are games of greater 
social value to girls than to boys? If so, why? 

7. What types of military organization have been used in this 



152 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

school? Which are in use now? Do the students who take military 
drill wear uniforms? What is the R. O. T. C? Explain its rela- 
tion to a school and to the national government. How are the 
officers of the military companies chosen in this school? How suc- 
cessful has the ordinary student officer been? Is military training 
chiefly valuable as preparation for possible war? 

8. Name several ways in which athletics are valuable. How is 
school spirit aided by athletic contests? Make a calendar of the 
year showing what months or weeks are given to different athletic 
activities. Show how football tends to develop teamwork. For 
what kind of cooperation is baseball particularly adapted? In this 
school is there any problem of persuading students to take part in 
track or other athletic contests? 

9. On the board, draw a diagram to represent our football team 
at the beginning of one of our own plays. Who has the ball? What 
is the position of the ' 'line' ' ? Who make up the back field? Indicate 
on the board the name representing each position for a typical 
play. When our opponents have the ball, what is likely to be the 
position of each man on our team? 

10. When did you last attend a musical assembly? Is there 
community singing in this locality? If so, who is the leader, where 
are the meetings held, and of what value to the community has it 
been? In this school what vocal musical organizations are there? 
Instrumental music is given by what different groups? 

11. Name two different departmental associations in this 
school. If there is a Junior Chamber of Commerce, describe it and 
its work. Give the names of at least three other clubs connected 
with this institution. For each group explain purpose, member- 
ship, dues, time of meetings, and, if possible, achievements. 

12. What do you mean by social service? Why should every 
person try to do some social service every day? Do tasks which 
we are requested to perform seem commonplace because we have 
become too accustomed to them or because we are following selfish 
ideals? Explain three needs of human nature. Name a social 
service that could be rendered in helping others satisfy each of those 
needs. Do you belong to a social service group? If so, what does 
it try to do? What is a Girls' League? What is done by the 
senior sister for her freshman protege? Is there a Boys' League in 
this school? 



CHAPTER X 

THE PROBLEM OF THE SCHOOL COURSE 

1. Requirements in school courses 

a. Requirements for graduation 

b. Grouping of subjects in courses of study 

c. Selection of courses 

(1) Selection of majors 

(2) Selection of minors 

(3) Elective subjects 

2. Advantages of different subjects 

a. The problem of preparation for college 

b. Comparative value of subjects 

(1) Preparation for life 

(2) Preparation for earning a living 

(3) Memory and discipline 

(4) Motives and goals 

(5) The mother tongue 

(6) Importance of scientific training 

Requirements in School Courses 

114. Requirements for Graduation.— If a person were ^ r f e h a ° n f d 
to obtain copies of courses of study in the larger high units for 
schools of the United States, he would have an interesting gra ua 
collection. He would find some similarities and many 
differences. Practically all provide four year courses; 
most arrange that each year students shall take four 
subjects five times a week, and therefore at least sixteen 
subjects (sixteen units of one year each) are required for 
graduation. If, however, many subjects are given only 
four times a week, as happens in a large number of schools, 
a larger number of units or year subjects must be com- 
pleted before graduation. If the ordinary subject is given 
only two or three times a week, as is the case in some 

153 



. 



154 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Uniform 
require- 
ments of 
all gradu- 
ates in 
many high 
schools. 



Arrange- 
ment of 
subjects as 
majors and 
minors. 



eastern high schools, a different system of measuring 
units must be used. 

Schools do not allow students to graduate with any 
sixteen credits. Ordinarily there are certain minimum 
requirements which every graduate must complete. The 
number varies in different schools. For example, all 
graduates of the high schools in New York City are 
obliged to have three years of English, one year of 
European History, one year of American History and 
Civics, one-half year of Economics, and two units of 
Physical Training, Drawing, and Music. The high 
schools of Pennsylvania require of all graduates three 
and one-half years of English and three and one-half 
years of history and other social science, in addition to 
health instruction throughout the four years. The Cali- 
fornia course has already been described (§58). More 
than a third of the high school graduates of the United 
States complete one of these three typical courses or one 
that is similar. 

115. Grouping of Subjects in Courses of Study. — 
Probably one-half of the high school students in this 
country are now arranging their courses according to a 
fairly definite plan of majors and minors. Whether the 
number of courses offered by a high school using this 
plan is large or small, every student is obliged to pursue 
one subject for at least three and possibly for four years, 
and to take at least two years of each of two other sub- 
jects. Usually the major subject is the one in which he 
is especially interested. Each of the other subjects, 
which may be called minors, are closely connected with 
the major. For example, if the student majors in English, 
he is likely to be urged or obliged to select, as his two 
minors, history and a foreign language. A student who 
majors in science will probably make mathematics one of 
his minors. 



REQUIREMENTS IN SCHOOL COURSES 155 

The Chicago course of study is typical of many. It The Chi- 

i cago plan. 

provides for "(a) three years of one line ol work classed 
as a major, for which full credit is given for each of the 
respective years; * * * (b) two years of a second 
line of work classed as a minor, for which full credit is 
given for each of the respective years; * * * and 
(c) two years of another line of work classed as a second 
minor, for which full credit is given for each of the 
respective years." 

116. Selection of Courses — The Major Subject. — A Good 

. , . reasons for 

boy or girl who enters a high school is expected to choose selection 
a course at once. Frequently a freshman selects a course °- a course - 
because a friend chooses the same, or because he has 
had a grade teacher whom he liked in that subject. It is 
desirable that, before the selection is -made, each freshman 
examine several courses, consult friends, and talk the 
matter over with parents and former teachers. If he can 
find work that meets his own particular preferences and 
tastes better than any other, he is fortunate. The work 
of the first year is usually prescribed, and in most academic 
courses the subjects are the same. A student who selects 
English as his major may usually change into a language 
course at the end of his first year without loss of credits. 

There is no good reason why a student should delay K r °™^dent 
making his final choice of a course until his third or even who changes 
his second year. If he does, he is likely to have two, three, late^hls 
or four credits which may not fit into his new course and ^ e ^ h ° o1 
which therefore must be sacrificed. Under those circum- 
stances, a student will be obliged either to carry one or 
two additional subjects during each of his later school 
years or to attend summer school at least two summers. 

117. Selection of Courses— Minor Subjects.— A Need of 

. selecting 

student should not only be certain that the major subject minor sub- 
of his course is the one which he particularly desires, but £ c C areftSy 
he should notice carefully the minor subjects also. Minors as maj< 



jors. 



156 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Minors and 
other sub- 
jects that 
are pre- 
scribed. 



Helps in 
choosing 
elective 
subjects. 



Why elec- 
tives must 
be well 
chosen. 



should not be placed in courses arbitrarily either by 
faculty or students, but should be chosen because they 
naturally belong with the major. For most students 
they are probably the most interesting subjects that 
could be selected; but, if prescribed by the school, they 
may not be the subjects that everyone is able to study to 
advantage. 

It is wise for a pupil to give at least half his time and 
possibly more than half his effort in his high school course 
to these few subjects which supplement each other. 
Undoubtedly there will be others that he needs for his 
own benefit at the time or as preparation for future work. 
Some of these may be required by the school or by the 
department in which he majors. The rest will depend 
upon his own interests and preferences, and he must 
therefore make his choice for himself. 

1 18. Elective Subjects. — A student needs to give par- 
ticular thought and care to the selection of electives. 
Occasionally a pupil will ask himself the question: "What 
subject will give me the most credit with the least work?" 
It is doubtful whether many high school students choose 
electives because they are "snap" courses. The average 
student probably selects his optional subjects because of 
his own special interest in the fields they represent. He 
wants to satisfy personal desires other than those filled 
by his required courses. If he has selected a particular 
college whose entrance requirements are rigid, however, 
his choice of electives will be exceedingly limited, and 
he may have little opportunity to satisfy his particular 
bent. 

Is not this a good rule? Never select a course or any 
elective subject without the greatest care. Modern 
society calls for trained people, and, although the race may 
not be to the swift, competition is severe. A student who 
graduates from high school with a hodge-podge of 



ADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT SUBJECTS 157 

materials or a dozen kinds of training is handicapped from 
the day he begins. There is absolutely no reason why 
any student should thus start at a disadvantage. 

Advantages of Different Subjects 

119. The Problem of Preparation for College.— Many J a a r ^ e d ° e f ci 
schools inform entering students that some subjects are sion re- 
excellent as preparation for college, whereas others are ^L^and 
not. Many schools ask new students: "Do you intend ajgood 
to go to college?" It is probable that most freshmen do 




Photo oy Field Photographic Service 

Algebra Play, Pasadena High School 
Pasadena, California 

not know very much about a college course that might 
be desirable, although some boys and girls may have 
already selected the institution, as well as the course 
to be pursued. 

If it is probable that you will go to college, do not wait Need of^ 
until your senior year to become acquainted with college college 
entrance requirements. Make sure that your high school require- 6 
course will prepare you not only for college but for a ments - 
definite type of college course. 

If this school is accredited, that is, if it is one whose 
graduates may enter certain colleges without examina- 
tion, do one other thing. Make a good grade in prac- 



158 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Why a stu- 
dent can 
not afford 
to get poor 
grades in 
any subject. 



The com- 
parative 
method of 
studying 
occupations 
and abili- 
ties. 



tically every one of your high school subjects. 1 If a 
student takes only sixteen regular units for graduation, 
and college demands high grades in fifteen, 2 many of 
them specified subjects, it can easily be seen that he 
can not afford to do poor or indifferent work in any 
subject whatsoever. Many high school students are 
careless for the first year or two : it does not pay. 3 

120. Value of Subjects as Preparation for Life. — In 
determining the value of any particular course and of 
any special subject, it may be well to consider the follow- 
ing questions: (a) Does this subject prepare me well for 
life work? (b) Is it better than any other subject for that 
purpose? (c) For what reasons and in what ways does it 
make a good preparatory subject in connection with the life 
work which I think I shall undertake? In order to answer 
these questions, it is necessary to study different types of 
vocations 4 and also to have some standards of comparison. 
These standards can best be secured by studying the essen- 
tials of several occupations, comparing the qualities, 
personal or professional, which are most valuable in them. 
It is well to study also the type of work that is done in 
each, and the different subjects that should be studied 
as preparation for each. Just as we can study light by 
comparing it with shadow, or beauty by observing ugliness, 

Sometimes a college permits any regular graduates of certain high 
schools to enter its doors; but those students may not be allowed to 
continue certain subjects unless they have had the high school subjects 
which are prerequisite to those college courses, or unless the high school 
student has done especially good work in certain preparatory subjects. 

2 Some colleges will not admit students on credits, unless they have 
made especially good grades in subjects which will be good for college pre- 
paratory work. Usually college entrance subjects must be of the older 



type of college preparatory work. Students who wish to enter college 
as bookkeeping, woodshop, or cooking. 



may not be allowed to offer more than a few vocational subjects, such 



a Probably a quarter of all high school graduates find, when they 
wish to go to college, that they have only eight or ten subjects in which 
they have recommended grades. To secure a sufficient number of 
recommended marks and to enter without "conditions," they are ready 
to move heaven and earth. 

* See Chapter XI. 



ADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT SUBJECTS 159 

so we may get our best idea of certain occupations, and 
the preparations desirable for them, by contrast. 

An individual is not simply a professional worker or ^ ha *^ ery 
business man. He is, first of all, a human being and a person 
citizen. Whether he is a lawyer or a physician, a plumber mus 
or a carpenter, a seller of books or a dealer in groceries, 
he wants first of all to be a man. In selecting his course 
and in choosing particular subjects, he must keep in 
mind, therefore, the necessity for understanding himself 
(§103), his environment, and the complicated organiza- 
tion of society in which he finds himself. He must 
understand government, because all of us live under 
governments and must obey their rules, even if we do 
not contribute to their support. He must understand 
the organization of business and the principles underly- 
ing business activities. He must understand the social 
organization 1 of the people of this country. 
i 121. Preparation for Earning a Living.— The schools JJJj'fJj 
should prepare us to earn a living as well as teach us prepared 

i e .for life 

how to live, because sooner or later most ot us must work, 
support ourselves. The high school should help us 
understand for what occupation we are best fitted 
(§136-141) and should allow no young man or woman 
to leave without a fairly definite idea of doing something 
and doing it well. Whether we are obliged to do so 
or not, we ought to be prepared for some work which 
will give us a money return. Even children of wealthy 
parents may be thrown upon their own resources 
and be compelled to earn their daily bread. Home ties 
or broken health may prevent us from following our 
vocation, but a busy democracy should have no place 
for a drone. 

A public-spirited citizen must find some work in the 

1 People are organized in nations and in families, which are after all 
social groups. They prepare themselves for their social and other civic 
duties in distinctively social institutions which we call schools. 



160 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Work that 
is worth 
while be- 
cause it is 
our own. 



Need and 
value of 
memory 
training. 



world well worth doing; he must try to do it better than 
anyone else. This vocation may bring in no money 
returns, because it may be connected with home duties, 
with public service, or with charitable work, for which no 
compensation is given. Although many of these tasks 



Print Shop, Manual Training High School 
Kansas City, Missouri 

seem commonplace, they are among the noblest in exist- 
ence. In the words of Henry Van Dyke: 

"Let me but do my work from day to day, 
In field or forest, at the desk or loom, 
In roaring market-place or tranquil room; 
Let me but find it in my heart to say, 
When vagrant wishes beckon me astray, 

'This is my work; my blessing, not my doom; 
'Of all who live, I am the one by whom 
'This work can best be done in the right way 



> }> 



122. Memory and Discipline. — When our grandfathers 
and grandmothers went to school, they memorized large 
parts of their textbooks. They knew how to spell well 
because their memories were well trained. Whatever else 




ADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT SUBJECTS 161 

their education lacked, they had developed their power 
to recall words, facts, and statements. Modern training 
is different. We have little drill in memory work, 1 yet 
we need a large amount of material on many subjects. 
In some cases we do not wish to carry that material with 
us and heed therefore only to know how and where we can 
find it. Many students do not even remember where 
they can get the information they need and do not know 
how to find it when they are told where it is. 

The older education was noted for its mental discipline. Why^er- 
A great many subjects were taken not because they were jects are 
of any special value in themselves but because they trained vXabVfor 
the mind well. The newer psychology stresses the fact mental dis- 
that methods and discipline acquired in one subject can 
not easily be transferred to another. Hence mental 
training does not come chiefly from a certain type of 
subject, but can be gained as well from one subject as 
from another. Yet all of us need a certain amount of 
work in subjects which are very definite but not easy. 
With their help we can discipline our minds because we 
must do thorough work and know positively whether we 
have done the work or not. 

123. Motives and Goals.— Possibly the world's best Value of 
work is due to the interest of the worker. A student who education. 
is unwilling to spend more than a half hour on the daily 
preparation of any one of his regular lessons will some- 
times devote to a hobby several hours a day. If the work 
of the school can be made sufficiently interesting, there 
is no reason why boys and girls should not only wish to 
continue as long as possible, but also put into their work 
more effort and very much more time than have boys 
and girls in the past. For the intermediate and high school 
years, modern education undoubtedly is far more interest- 

i Memory developed in one subject can not be "carried over" into 
another, but the power of recall can be developed as a habit, a very valu- 
able asset to any scholar or man of business. 



162 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Necessary 
stepping 
stones to 
higher type 
of work. 



Importance 
of good 
English. 



ing than that of a generation ago. There is no reason, 
however, why it should not be made still more live and 
more vital. We learn by doing, and if there were larger 
opportunities for action within the classroom, and if 
more depended upon what each of us did, we should 
probably be willing to give more attention and effort to 
our school subjects. 1 

We need a motive such as interest ; we also need a pur- 
pose. If one wishes to follow a straight and direct path, 
it is necessary for him to have not only a goal, but also 
some nearby mark which he can watch continually on his 
way. Otherwise he wanders far afield. To reach an 
educational goal, many preliminary subjects are usually 
necessary, because one must have a knowledge of element- 
ary work before taking that which is more difficult. A 
student who expects to specialize in mechanics can not 
neglect either mathematics or physics. A scholar who 
intends to make himself master of applied science will 
probably need to know at least two modern languages. A 
physician who has ignored preliminary work in chemistry 
is likely to be as much of a failure as a lawyer who 
knows no history. 

124. The Mother Tongue. — No man is educated unless 
he uses good English. The mastery of the mother tongue 
is a life task worthy of any student. Little by little one 
ought to become acquainted with correct usage, because 
the best is none too good. If we limit our study of 
English to work in English classes, we shall make little 
progress. If we want good usage, we must acquire it by 
using it, and by using nothing else. English is especially 
important from the social point of view. Without the 
medium of a common language, it would be impossible 
for any number of people to live together successfully. 

IT 

Jin his "Educational Essays," John Dewey devotes the second essay, 
which is full of suggestion, to the subject "Interest in its Relation to 
Training of the Will." 



ADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT SUBJECTS 163 

Through words men communicate with one another, 
making known their needs, wants, and problems. With- 
out words, moreover, we find it impossible to formulate 
our ideas and develop them, in short, to think. 

Words must not be neglected. Unless we know the Elements 
meaning of words, we do not understand books or the of English 
talk of educated folk. 1 If we are afraid of grammatical com P° sition - 
forms, unwilling to study rules of rhetoric, unable to 
construct good sentences, we proclaim our ignorance and 
shut ourselves out from the larger world of thinking 
people. English composition is therefore one of the 
important high school subjects. A boy who may give 
little attention to an essay on some subject selected by 
his teacher will grow eloquent in describing his feats with 
wireless, or his successes in shop, or his experiments in 
his own laboratory. If we have something to say, we 
want to be able to say it, and to say it effectively. 2 

One might think that an engineer need not be particular Value of 
about his English, either oral or written. Let a single English in 
example suffice. A distinguished engineer needed an busmess - 
assistant. All applications were made in writing. From 
these the expert selected one hundred and asked for a 
second application, also in writing. From these a few 
were chosen, and the place was filled after personal con- 
sultation. There is no business proposition, no place in 
the world in which a person does not need to say exactly 
what he means. 

125. Importance of Scientific Training.— Education of ^ f n s ° c ^ e ge 
the nineteenth century is distinguished from education of and 
earlier centuries largely by its stress upon science and methods. 
scientific methods. The mechanical achievements of the 
wonderful nineteenth century were largely in the field of 

1 Unless we really know words, something of their history and inner 
meaning, unless we can distinguish synonym from synonym, we are but 
half living a life whose meanings are expressed in words. 

2 "Have something to say, and say it" was the Duke of Wellington's 
theory of style. 



164 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



The well 
educated 
citizen. 



applied science. Educational advance has come chiefly 
through the remarkable increase in our comprehension of 
the marvels of nature and in the application of scientific 
methods of study not only to men and natural phenomena 
of animate and inanimate nature but also to the social 
world and to the world of business. Every student 
should have some experimental work in science, in order 
that he may gain insight into scientific methods of 

research. Many 
students ought to 
have, as a scien- 
tific basis of later 
education, corre- 
lated work in 
the three foun- 
dation sciences of 
biology, physics, 
and chemis- 
try. Experience 
will introduce 
us to scientific 
methods, but we 
need to follow 
the guidance of 
others and have 
some knowledge of the underlying principles which science 
has disclosed as the bases of living things and of natural 
processes. 

A well rounded education needs to combine several of 
the different subjects, interests, or methods explained in 
the preceding paragraphs. As Professor Giddings says, 
11 An educated man is one who knows something of everything 
and everything of something ." A high school graduate 
should not be a specialist, but he should know what it 
means to specialize, and to have done a little in that 




Science Laboratory, Shortridge 
High School, Indianapolis, 
Indiana 






ADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT SUBJECTS 165 

direction. He can not be an all-around man; but he 
should at least have the elements of a well rounded education, 
with some work that is practical, some that is disciplinary, 
some that is cultural, and much that develops him as a 
man and as a citizen. 

References 

1. The high school course. Clark, The High School Boy, 21-39. 

2. Going to college. Clark, The High School Boy, 168-194. 

3. Importance of English composition. Gerrish, C. M., 
Educational Review, 49 (1915), 126-135. 

4. How to study human nature through English. Smith, What 
Can Literature Do for Me, 68-124. 

,5. Literature as an aid to good writing. Smith, What Can 
Literature Do for Me, 197-224. 

6. The demand for discipline. Muntroe, New Demands in 
Education, 172-185. 

7. The reason why in science. Williams, The Wonders of 
Science in Modern Life, Vol. IX. 

*Bobbitt, The Curriculum. 

*Dewey, Democracy and Education. 

*Moore, What is Education? 

*Colvin, An Introduction to High School Teaching. 

Questions 

1. How many units must be taken for graduation in this school? 
What are the minimum requirements of each graduate? How do 
they compare with the requirements for graduation from other 
schools of which you have knowledge? What is a major subject? 
What is a minor? Are you registered in any course? If so, what is 
it called? If it has a major, what is the subject? Name any other 
subjects which you will take for at least two years before graduation. 

2. When should a high school course be selected by a student? 
If one is in a junior high school, when should he select his high 
school course? What courses of this school are practically inter- 
changeable at the end of the first year? How should one select a 
major subject? What attention should be paid to minor subjects 
if the school combines minor subjects with major subjects in its 

*Primarily for teachers. 



166 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

courses? What is an elective? Name reasons why one should have 
at least two different types of electives before graduation. 

3. How many units are required for college entrance? Does 
the nearest large college prescribe what these subjects shall be? 
If so, what are they? Study the college requirements of at least 
one other college which you might be interested to enter. Is this 
school accredited by any college? What grade is required before 
a credit may be used in college entrance? In how many high school 
subjects can a student who wishes to go to college afford to get low 
passing grades? 

4. Name at least two qualifications that each subject should 
have as preparation for other things than college. What is the 
difference between making a living and making a life? 

5. What is memory? If one has developed a good memory in 
one line, how valuable is that memory for another subject? What 
do you understand by mental discipline? What is the value of 
mental discipline? 

6. How does interest compare with other motives you can 
mention? Show that we "learn by doing." Why is it desirable that 
we treat the material of many school subjects as problems? Why 
should we learn to state as well as solve problems? How can we test 
our solutions to discover whether they are real solutions? What kind 
of goal should we have in education? If we change our goal, how 
useful are we likely to find (a) the material that we gathered on the 
way to the other goal and (b) the methods and habits already 
developed? 

7. Why is a knowledge of the mother tongue necessary to a 
person of culture? In the history of the human race, what has 
been the social value of language? What do you understand by a 
synonym? Why should a technical man know much about English? 
To what extent is clearness of thought dependent upon clearness of 
expression? 

8. What is meant by applied science? What are scientific 
methods of research? What is a laboratory science? Have some 
one explain to you how the three sciences of biology, physics, and 
chemistry are interrelated. Why will they give you "some knowl- 
edge of the underlying principles which science has disclosed as the 
bases of living things and of natural processes?" According to 
Professor Giddings, who is an educated man? Name two or more 
elements of a well rounded education. 



PART IV 

THE CITIZEN AND BUSINESS 



_ 



CHAPTER XI 

THE SELECTION OF A VOCATION 

General 

1 . Knowledge of occupations 

a. "Blind alley" occupations 

b. Local and national importance of each industry 

c. Probable future of occupations 

d. Opportunities for beginners and for advancement 

e. Regularity of work and income 
/. Hours of work 
g. Other conditions of work 
h. Relations with the public 
i. Opportunities for those who become enterprisers 

2. Qualities desirable in different occupations 

a. Work requiring brawn 

b. Mechanical skill 

c. Deftness and alertness 

d. Inventiveness and resourcefulness 

e. Advanced professional preparation 

f. Ability in addressing or handling men 

126. General. — In order that a school should prepare What the 

^ ^ school owes 

its students for life work, it is important, if not necessary, in prepara- 
•that it give them some knowledge (1) of occupations and wor k. 
(2) of the qualities necessary or desirable in different voca- 
tions. Some school courses, such as those in book- 
keeping or agriculture, are really practical. A student 
who has taken one of these subjects will be fairly well 
fitted to begin some life work. 

In preparing to enter an industry, one must not be con- ? J ® arnin . g 1 
tent simply to learn the facts about that occupation, processes 
It is far easier to study the different processes used in any preparation, 
industry than it is to find and take school courses which 

169 



170 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



What pre- 

vocational 

training 

should 

include. 



Why "blind 
alley" oc- 
cupations 
should be 
avoided. 



Facts re- 
garding 
youthful 
workers * 



will be good preparation for that occupation. A person 
might memorize a great many facts regarding the way 
work is done in a cotton mill, or a shoe factory, or a steel 
manufacturing plant, without really knowing anything 
about what the business itself is like, or without gaming 
any knowledge valuable for entering that industry. 

From the student's standpoint, different occupations 
should be studied in order, first, to learn something 
about the work that is done 1 in each. In the second 
place, a pupil needs to study them to get some idea of 
the kind of workers they employ, as well as to ascertain 
what personal tastes, interests, and characteristics are 
desirable in each business. In the third place, he should 
get some idea of the advantages which one occupation 
offers over another; which offers the best start, or work 
under the most favorable conditions, or the best chance 
of promotion. 

Knowledge of Occupations 

127. "Blind Alley" Occupations.— It is highly desir- 
able that every boy and every girl should avoid " blind 
alley" industries. A " blind alley" occupation is one 
which gives fairly good wages to boys and girls, but offers 
no opportunity for advancement and does not employ 
men and women. The boy who sells papers on the street 
and the girl in the candy factory find themselves in 
industrial "blind alleys." All the training that the 
boy or girl gets in the active years of adolescence is there- 
fore wasted so far as preparation for adult life work is 
concerned. 

Investigators report that in some states eighty-seven 
per cent of working children between the ages of fourteen 
and sixteen are engaged in " blind alley" occupations. 
They have left school in order to earn money and are 

i This is not so much a study of processes as of purposes, conditions, 
and results. 



KNOWLEDGE OF OCCUPATIONS 171 

earning a little, but they are losing the school work which j 

would fit them, as adults, to hold some better position. 

When they are eighteen or twenty, they must start anew 

at the very bottom, as unskilled workers in some other 

occupation. Boys and girls should stay in school as long 

as possible. If they are compelled to drop out, they J 

should avoid an industry that leads nowhere. 

128. Local and National Importance of Each Industry. ^ g d ^- j 

— In selecting a life career, one should not simply find an highly 
industry that is interesting. A good vocation should in dustry. 
possess most of the advantages mentioned in later sections 
of this topic, and, in order to be desirable, should have 
one additional merit. It should be found in many 
localities. An industry for which one town alone is 
famous, as is the making of collars and cuffs in Troy, 
may be quite satisfactory 1 if one does not wish, or is 
not compelled, to change his residence. In these 
days, however, a worker's family is likely to move 
at some time during his career. Any member of the 
family group who can do only one thing is at a serious 
disadvantage, if that one thing is done only in the town 
which he leaves. Such a person would be obliged to 
start at the beginning, in a new industry, even if he were 
middle-aged when the change was made. 

In modern industry competition is keen (§28). In Advantages 
consequence each factory is likely to use the latest and tries with 
best machinery which it can afford and can get. The Methods. Z( 
methods used in each occupation are, therefore, much 
alike in New Hampshire, in Georgia, and in California. 
In a new community a skilled and willing worker is not 
long out of a job. . A wise artisan will therefore try to 
select an industry in which he can find employment in 
different places and at different times. He will want a 
vocation which gives opportunity for advancement and 

i It must be understood that the industry pays good wages and offers 
possibilities for advancement. 



172 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Why we 
must con- 
sider the 
probable 
future of 
industries. 



Types of 
occupations 
to avoid. 



in which his chance for promotion will be practically as 
good if he moves as it will be in the community in which 
he first began to work. 

129. Probable Future of Occupations. — Always select 
for a life career an occupation that has a good future. 
One can never forsee what inventions may place old tools 
and machinery in the scrap heap. Nevertheless, those 
who advise students, whether parents or teachers, ought 
to have enough knowledge of industries and of the trend 
of industrial development to judge whether an occupation 
is likely to be discontinued. There are certain kinds of 
farming, important a few years ago, which no longer 
employ many workers. One does not study old types of 
abbreviated words when better systems- of shorthand are 
necessary. Many old methods in baking and cooking 
have been superseded by easier, more successful, and 
more modern processes. 

Certainly no young man of to-day would think of pre- 
paring himself for a career connected with the liquor 
industry. Any one who devoted years of study to 
methods of sailing and of shipping used in bygone days 
would find little demand for his services, even if some old 
friend might employ him for a few years. Although 
hand-spun and hand-woven goods are of high value, the 
person who enters the industry of spinning or weaving 
needs preparation for a modern, up-to-date occupation. 
There is only a limited demand for shoemakers who make 
complete shoes, and a cobbler must be content with repair 
work. Few persons are likely to spend years fitting them- 
selves to teach German or Greek in a high school, because 
of the present limited demand for teachers in those sub- 
jects. Even if some friend of the family is a successful 
worker in an industry, do not be persuaded to select it, 
unless it has a good future and unless it offers a wide 
field for action. 






KNOWLEDGE OF OCCUPATIONS 173 

130. Opportunities for Beginners and for Advance- ^ n ° c $£ t 
ment. — In some occupations the beginner is particularly pay fair 
fortunate, because he starts well up in the list of employees. JSflie- ° 
Mail carriers and other government employees, school £ mner - 
teachers, stenographers, and bookkeepers might be said 
to belong to this group. The wages at the beginning are 
high, even though there is little chance of great increase. 
To be sure, some school teacher may rise to the position 
of superintendent or college professor at a good salary. 
A shorthand expert who is particularly quick, intelligent, 
and well educated might possibly become a court stenog- 
rapher, commanding a good income. Bookkeepers begin 
well, but only occasionally does a bookkeeper become an 
expert accountant. It can thus be seen that some occu- 
pations which afford the best opportunities at the start 
have very little future. 

In a business that is desirable in itself and that does ^poXni- 
give opportunities for advancement, a person who expects *ks for 
to go to the top ought to be willing to begin at the men t. 
bottom. Even if his preparation is unusually broad, if 
he hopes to supervise all processes of work, it is wise for 
him to gain a general acquaintance with the whole 
industry. 

In the regular professions there are unusual oppor- ^^g^f 1 
tunities, because there is always room at the top. In possibiii- 
most large establishments, it is possible to rise from the 
status of an ordinary partly skilled worker to that of 
foreman or superintendent. Many of our railway presi- 
dents started in inferior positions. The greatest steel 
man of our day, Charles Schwab, was at one time only a 
day laborer in a steel plant. Some presidents of the 
United States have won their way to high office from a 
comparatively humble begining. 

131. Regularity of Work and Income. — One of the 
big problems of recent years in this country and in Great 



ties. 



174 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Irregular 
work in 
mining of 
coal as a 
type 
problem. 



Advantages 
of regular 
employment 
in coal 
mining. 



Objections 
to all 

seasonal 
industries. 



Britain has been connected with the mining of coal. 
On both sides of the water, much more coal is used in 
winter than in summer. It is probable that if all the 
workers in the mines of England and America worked 
five days a week, they would mine more coal than would be 
needed. On an average, anthracite miners are idle sixty 
days out of a possible three hundred, and bituminous 
miners eighty -three. For much of the period in which they 
do work, they are employed only a few hours a day. 

A seasonal industry of this type might be transformed 
into a regular occupation in which the output of the lean 
months, in the late spring and early summer, might be 
made practically as great as that of the peak months, in 
the late fall or ear]y winter. The coal miners would 
then have regular incomes and steady work, and we 
should be rid of the discontent, disorder, and the appalling 
losses due to coal strikes and acute fuel shortage in crises. 

Many other occupations are seasonal, especially in the 
northern states where the seasons are sharply marked. 
A boy who goes into carpentry work ought also to have 
skill in cabinetmaking or in some other kind of woodwork 
which will give him regular employment in the months 
when there is no building. Probably no one would spend 
a long time preparing for a trade which devoted only the 
early fall months to making Christmas goods of a some- 
what perishable nature. Avoid seasonal industries. 
Before making a selection of a life vocation, find out 
whether work in that occupation is to be regular, without 
long, enforced vacations, and without constant calls for 
overtime tasks. If overtime work is necessary, the occupa- 
tion should be one which recognizes the extra sacrifice 
made after regular hours, and pays accordingly. 

132. Hours of Work. — In some processes connected 
with the steel industry and in some other occupations it 
has been difficult to secure American workers because of 



KNOWLEDGE OF OCCUPATIONS 



175 



the unreasonably long hours. Foreigners who will work "Continu- 

J ° tit ous m dus- 

twelve-hour shifts for seven days a week have been tries with 
secured at comparatively low wages, but no human being, t ^,| 
entitled in even a limited sense to "life, liberty, and the avoided, 
pursuit of happiness," should be forced to toil eighty-four 
hours a week. Some street car companies and telephone 
offices, in states where there is no time limit to the hours 




A Large Factory at the Closing Hour 

of work, likewise have demanded unreasonable hours of 
service. In some states drug store clerks are on duty 
twelve and thirteen hours a day. If an industry is one 
in which the work must be continued for twenty-four 
hours a day, or a large part of twenty-four hours, the work 
I should be divided into shifts of not more than ten hours 
each, and if possible not more than eight. 

To be attractive an industry should have comparatively 
short hours, in fact rather than in appearance. School 



176 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Desirability 
of short 
hours. 



Attractive- 
ness of 
good work- 
ing condi- 
tions. 



Occupations 
to be 
avoided. 



Attitude of 
the public. 



teaching and banking have really much longer hours 
than might be imagined. The work day of the teacher or 
bank teller may not be as short as that of the carpenter 
or brickmason. The general public should see that 
youths and women who work are not compelled to labor 
more than nine hours daily, and preferably not more than 
eight hours each day. Certainly the less robust workers 
and possibly most, if not all, of the others should have one 
day of rest per week. If possible, there should be an extra 
half day vacation, at least during the summer months. 
Short hours mean time for leisure, recreation, and study. 

133. Other Conditions of Work. — Conditions of work 
are in some respects more important than hours. Work 
in a quiet, clean office or shop at interesting tasks is far 
less fatiguing than work done in grimy and noisy sur- 
roundings. If one must always be on the alert to avoid 
dangerous machinery or to keep an electric needle going 
at high speed, the nervous strain is intense. Even such 
an occupation as that of a telephone operator should be 
avoided by one who is nervous. Do not be misled by 
comparatively high wages into taking a position in which 
the human "wear and tear" is heavy. 

It is not always possible to find work under a considerate 
and wise employer. It is probable that there is no one . 
occupation in which employers as a class are especially 
thoughtful of the men and women under them. There 
are, however, many industries in which the conditions of 
employment are notoriously evil. This may be due to 
the fact that the work is left to overseers who are petty in 
spirit and who therefore make undue and unfair use of 
their positions to bully their subordinates. Such trades 
and such" establishments are to be avoided. 

134. Relations with the Public. — Some occupations 
attract workers not because they pay well, but because 
they are pleasant and held in high esteem by the general 






KNOWLEDGE OF OCCUPATIONS 177 

public. Many a man has gone into the ministry because 
of the respect for the cloth held by his parishioners and 
also by outsiders. Public singing and authorship make 
strong appeals, although usually they are not very 
remunerative. Thousands who are not employed in the 
" movies" would like to break into that business, although 
only a few stars and a comparatively small number of 
regular workers make much money in it. The artist and 
the poet are proverbially poor. If a person has skill and 
aptitude for these and other occupations, it may be wise 
to have some other work which brings a regular income. 
In his semi-leisure hours he can then make a hobby out 
of one of these interesting tasks. Fame is worth having, 
but few win it, and the pursuit of fame is not a good way 
to earn bread and butter. 

The making of money, however, should not be the f^ubSc 
chief aim in the selection of any vocation. We wish as a neces- 

. i sary part 

work that makes a strong public appeal; we need work of any life, 
which gives opportunity for social service. Almost every 
occupation is of such value to the public that we may 
well speak of those who follow it as " soldiers of common 
welfare." If a person has a choice between two vocations 
that are practically equal, he should choose the one which 
gives better chance of helping his fellow men. A man 
who can do a valuable social service as part of his regular 
work will be a better citizen than the person who can 
really help his fellows only in the welfare service that he 
does outside of his business. Work honestly and faith- 
fully done may be a citizen's best contribution to the 
public weal. As Kipling has pictured it: 

"And only the Master shall praise us, and only the Master shall 

blame ; 
And no one shall work for money, and no one shall work for fame, 
But each for the joy of working, and each, in his separate star, 
Shall draw the Thing as he sees it for the God of Things as They 

Are!" 



178 



THE- PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Qualities 
necessary 
for good 
enter- 
prisers. 



The duty 
of high 
school to 
leaders. 



135. Opportunities for Those Who become Enter- 
prisers. — Many young men and some young women are 
ambitious to make a great success in some line of business 
endeavor. They bring to their tasks qualities of resource- 
fulness, inventiveness, and persistence which might win 
success in many different occupations. They may be 
content to occupy lower positions to fit them for higher; 
but they are not satisfied to continue in a subordinate 
place if they know they are fitted for something better. 
Our commercial high schools have made comparatively 
little appeal to boys and girls with those qualities. They 
have been content to train bookkeepers and stenographers 
rather than to lay a foundation for business managers 
and leaders, whom we call enterprisers. 

In a sense enterprisers are born rather than made; but 
many more business organizers and managers succeed 
because of the use they make of their ability than because 
of inherited qualities. Each high school should make a 
study of occupations that are attractive to business 
leaders. Every high school should seek to develop 
leadership and should instill into its boys and girls the 
need of finding the work for which they are best fitted, 
of looking continually for better methods and oppor- 
tunities within that field, and of developing skill in 
invention, organization, or management which will make 
them true leaders of men. 



Qualities Desirable in Different Occupations 

136. Work requiring Brawn. — In general, occupa- 
tions which make use of physical strength do not employ 
many men of education. It is highly desirable that each 
for educated WO rker should be as well and as strong as possible. But 

men and . 

simply because a man has physical strength, he is not 
justified in entering an occupation like ditch-digging or 
stone-lifting, which calls for little but physical strength 



Undesir- 
ability of 
the 

"brawn" 
occupations 



women. 



QUALITIES DESIRABLE IN OCCUPATIONS 179 

and endurance. We must not misunderstand; the 
dignity of labor is largely a dignity of manual labor. 
God pity the American people if its youth ever come to 
despise work done with the hands ! In a sense, however, 
it might be said that work requiring brawn, and only 
brawn, does not touch the problem which we are study- 
ing, that is, the problem of preparing boys and girls of 
the early adolescent period for life careers in which they 




A Section Gang on a Railroad 



Hine Photo Company 



can make the most of themselves and do the most for 
society. 

There is another reason why pupils should not study inevitable 

1/11 competition 

occupations demanding brawn alone with any idea ol with aliens, 
entering them. Most of this crude type of labor has 
appealed chiefly to the immigrant laborer who has been 
accustomed to excessive toil in the field or in the mine. 
American workers, whether well educated or not, hesitate 
to compete with these unskilled and uneducated Euro- 



180 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

peans. The construction work on railways, the heavy 
work in excavation for buildings, and the crude tasks 
performed by the ordinary miner are therefore left almost 
exclusively to foreigners. 
What 137. Mechanical Skill. — The skilled worker or artisan 

TY1 J-l kPQ 3 

successful belongs to a different class and lives in a different world 
mechanician, from the group we have just been considering. To be 
sure, the blacksmith, the steel worker, and many others 
who are really skilled mechanics must have unusual 
strength. Possibly also they may require the delicacy of 
touch of a master worker. Take, for example, the worker 
who handled a huge steam hammer weighing a ton and 
capable of delivering blows of terrific force. When a 
watch was placed upon the plate, he stopped his hammer 
without breaking the crystal, though the hammer was so 
close that a sheet of paper could not be slipped between 
hammer and watch. Such men are invaluable in almost 
any occupation. 
How society Comparatively few workers in the industries requiring 
should, mechanical skill have acquired much of their training in 

thJsemen d schools. Most of them left school at an early age, 
more - started in any situation which happened to be open, and 

adapted themselves to the peculiar needs of the work 
that came to their hands. If we were to make a study 
of the men in these industries, we should find that prob- 
ably half of them could do better work at some other task. 
If it had been possible to keep most of them in school for 
three or four years longer, and to give them mechanical 
and vocational training along lines in which they were 
most interested, they would have become much more useful 
citizens. They would have made better selection of 
their life work and would have had much better prepara- 
tion for it. 

138. Deftness and Alertness. — Mechanical skill gives 
opportunities chiefly for boys. Deftness and alertness 



QUALITIES DESIRABLE IN OCCUPATIONS 181 

are qualities distinctively feminine. Occasionally, how- Feminine 
ever, they are used in mechanical occupations with remark- work for- 
able success. During the World War, when the men of toymen. 6 
England and France were at the front, girls and young 
women took their places in munition factories. The out- 
put of the women workers was considerably higher than 
that of the average man, largely because of the character- 
istics that we are now considering. 




Switchboard in a Big Telephone Office 
Deftness and alertness are most valuable, not in doing Some 

rpisons 

quickly and skillfully the tasks meant for men's fingers, why certain 
but in work of an entirely different character. In order are^most 8 
to have a list of occupations requiring deftness, alertness, monopolized 

r • 7 . .by women. 

and taste, one need only summarize those industries 
chiefly filled by women. Most clerks and office assistants 
are women, for the work is light, but requires these 
qualities. Among men, how seldom one finds a first-class 
stenographer, a typist who averages forty words a 



Contrast 
between the 
average 
pupil and 
the superior 
boy or girl. 



Develop- 
ment of 
leadership. 



182 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 






minute, a telephone operator who manages a complicated 
board in a modern exchange, a first class milliner. In 
much factory work, as in the making of paper flowers or 
in the manufacture of collars, practically all of the 
delicate tasks are left to women. 

139. Inventiveness and Resourcefulness. — The great 
armies of employees engaged in the more or less humdrum 
occupations are not composed of men and women or boys 
and girls of the highest education. In a democracy it is 
desirable that each of these citizens should receive the 
best education 1 that their circumstances and abilities 
permit. Nevertheless, it would be a mistake to try to 
give most of these people the best type of a complete 
high school education. Certainly a college education 
would be wasted upon the majority. Even among those 
that drop out of school, there are, however, a very large 
number of boys and girls whose minds are keen and who 
are ambitious to make the most of themselves. Society 
owes to each of them opportunity to secure the best 
training which the state can provide — an education that 
really meets their needs. 

The schools should not discourage curiosity, inventive- 
ness, or resourcefulness. Class work must be done by a 
group working together, but the individual who possesses 
initiative, individuality, personality, and capacity for 
leadership should be encouraged to develop those traits. 
Only in this way can the nation hope to discover defects and 
find better methods in its way of doing things. The world's 
progress has not been brought about altogether by doing 
well the things which others have taught us to do. It has 
been achieved largely by the improvements made by experts 
who have invented new devices and developed new ideas. 

i If these boys and girls remain in school until the age of 16 or 18, 
the training which they receive should be very different fiom that given 
in high schools a quarter of a century ago, and in some high schools 
to-day. 



QUALITIES DESIRABLE IN OCCUPATIONS 183 



140. Advanced Professional Preparation. — Compara- 
tively few professional men of to-day are uneducated. 
The majority have received at least part of a college 
education and some 'professional training in addition. 
Almost all the higher specialists in law, medicine, educa- 
tion, and theology have gone through both a college and 
a professional school. Although the battle is not neces- 
sarily to the strong, or the race to the swift, competition 
is exceedingly severe among the leaders of any 
profession. The advantage usually rests either with 
the person who is best prepared and uses his brains to 
the best advantage, or with the one physically strongest 
among those equally equipped mentally. Genius is after 
all very little more than hard work rightly applied. 

Each of the professions requires a set of qualities of 
its own. 1 The man who should make a first-class lawyer 
probably would not be successful as a physician, and a 
man who should become a very skilled surgeon might be 

1 It stands to reason that if one is not interested in religion he should 
avoid the ministry; but a person might not be a good minister simply 
because he is religious. Booker T. Washington tells about an old 
colored man who wanted to preach. He came to Washington and 
said that he had had a vision in which he had seen the letters G. P. C, 
which he interpreted to mean "Go preach Christ." Knowing that the 
man was not fitted to be a successful minister, Washington told him that 
instead of meaning that, the letters meant "Go plant corn." Prac- 
tically every minister should be a fairly good pastor and he should have 
that combination of human qualities and the power of expressing him- 
self publicly and sympathetically which would make him a man honored 
and desired in any community. 

If a boy thinks he would like to be a physician or a surgeon, but is 
unwilling to devote very much time outside of school to his lessons, 
the chances are that he will rebel against the long hours and constant 
interruptions day and night which is the lot of a general practicing 
physician. 

There are many types of lawyers. The legal profession needs some 
who excel in study, who can follow a problem, or who have ability to 
get together material. The man who can plead well before a jury will 
have a greater public reputation than will his quieter partner, although 
his work may be of less value professionally. Since clergymen and 
physicians usually work as individuals, whereas lawyers frequently 
work together, a lawyer can ordinarily be more of a specialist than men 
in either of the other professions. 

A first class lawyer, teacher, minister, or doctor must have an 
extraordinary knowledge of human nature and of the way things are done 
in this world. These professions, and many others, give excellent 
opportunities of public service for those who really wish to help humanity. 



Need of 
advanced 
education 
for profes- 
sional 
specialists. 



Different 
qualities 
needed in 
different 
professions. 



184 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Need of 
training in 
oral expres- 
sion. 



an utter failure in the pulpit. If one is to enter a pro- 
fession, he must study the qualities ^that are needed in 
that particular occupation. He should then seek to find 
the institution of higher learning in which he can get the 
best general foundation for that type of work, and, if 
possible, he should round out his preparation by a course 
in the best professional school that is available. 




Union Theological Seminary 

141. Ability in Addressing or Handling Men. — Leader- 
ship is not all of one type. There are leaders and leaders. 
The quack who stands on the street corner and persuades 
a gullible public to buy his nostrums may have qualities 
of appeal which should have fitted him for a much higher 
task. Too few of our educated men are able to think on 
their feet and say what they wish to say clearly, directly, 
and briefly. Our schools have neglected training in oral 
expression, one of the finest arts that can be studied. 
Although experience is more valuable than instruction, 
wise suggestions are necessary to avoid mannerisms. In 
recitation and in speech the student can be aided by friends 
and by teachers, particularly by those who specialize in 
English. 



QUALITIES DESIRABLE IN OCCUPATIONS 185 

An entirely different type of leadership is found among TrueTypes 
those who must guide and direct the efforts of a large ship. 
number of men. For every hundred men who succeed 
in their profession, there is not more than one who is a 
successful student of men, capable of holding their 
interest, directing their attention, and leading them to 
higher levels. Our greatest generals have not always 
been the finest tacticians, but they have been pre-eminently 
leaders. 1 In a great factory or in a large railway system, 
one man is manager, not- necessarily because he knows 
more about the subject than any of his colleagues, but 
because he understands human nature and is able to handle 

men. 

References 

1. Points to be considered in the selection of an occupation. 
Giles, Vocational Civics, 5-15. 

2. Boys and girls in commercial work. Lutz, Wage Earning and 
Education (Cleveland Education Survey), 101-114. 

3. The modern factory. Leavitt and Brown, Elementary 

Social Science, 57-62. 

4. A man's hours. Tarbell, New Ideals in Business, 163-192. 

5. A modern department store. Leavitt and Brown, Elemen- 
tary Social Science, 67-70. 

6. Government service. Giles, Vocational Civics, 18-30. 

7. Dressmaking and millinery. Lutz, Wage Earning and 
Education (Cleveland Education Survey), 151-157. 

8. Banking. Giles, Vocational Civics, 80-84. 

9. Stenographers and typists. Giles, Vocational Civics, 134-139. 

10. Salesmanship. Giles, Vocational Civics, 121-134. 

11. Medicine as a profession. Giles, Vocational Civics, 152-164. 

12. Choosing a profession. Clark, The High School Boy, 

152-167. 

13. Choice of a life work. Bloomfield, The Vocational 

Guidance of Youth, 1-11. 

i Before the World War broke out, Marshal Foch, generalissimo of 
the allies in their great victory (1918), was professor of military history, 
strategy, and applied tactics at the Superior School of War m Pans. 
In his classroom he had trained thousands of officers who, in the last 
great drive against the Germans, were able to carry out the plans of 
the great teacher and leader. 



186 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

14. Work as a public service. Tufts, The Real Business of 
Living, 210-221. 

15. Personal qualities essential to all occupations. Giles, 
Vocational Civics, 225-248. 

*Giles, Vocational Civics. 
*Allen, Business Employments. 
*Brewer, The Vocational Guidance Movement. 
*Lutz, Wage Earning and Education (Cleveland Education 
Survey). 

*Lapp and Mote, Learning to Earn. 
*Filene, Careers for Women. 

Questions 

1. In the selection of a vocation, (a) what two kinds of knowl- 
edge will be most valuable to us? (6) What work done in any 
industry is it most important that we should study? 

2. What is a "blind alley" industry? Why are so many boys 
and girls who leave school found in blind alley occupations? Give 
one objection to becoming a skilled worker in a localized industry. 
What is meant by a national standardized industry? 

3. Why is it important to select an industry that has a future? 
Name a half dozen industries which have fewer opportunities and 
openings than they had a few years ago. 

4. What is a seasonal industry? Name two seasonal industries 
and give reasons why each is not a continuous occupation. Is it 
possible to change either of them into regular, continuous indus- 
tries? If so, how can it be done and what is the probability that 
this change will be made? 

5. Name at least one industry in which long hours are almost 
unavoidable. Why should there be a time limit on the work of 
young people and of women? Which is harder, the ordinary school 
day or a two-hour examination? What is the importance of con- 
ditions of work compared with hours? Explain objections to noisy 
or dirty surroundings, dangerous machinery, or work undertaken, 
like examinations, under severe strain. Give four occupations held 
in high public esteem and explain why each is honored or favored. 

6. What is more important, to start at a good salary or to have 
excellent opportunities for advancement? (In giving vour answer 
consider the ambition, ability, and possibility of growth of the 
person employed.) What difficulties are encountered by a person 

*Primarily for teachers 



QUALITIES IN DIFFERENT OCCUPATIONS 187 

at the top who has never had experience with all types of his work 
from the bottom up? From the standpoint of opportunities to rise, 
does modern industry seem to be fairly democratic? If one wanted 
to become an enterpriser, would one choose an occupation organ- 
ized on a very large scale or an industry in which there are many 
heads? What qualities are necessary for a good enterpriser? 

7. What different industries and other occupations are there in 
this city? How many men and women are employed in each? 
If possible, learn which p'ay the best wages to (a) the ordinary 
employee, (6) the most skilled workers. If you are interested in two 
or more, give six reasons why you prefer one to others. 

8. Make a list of occupation characteristics that are desirable 
from the standpoint of the mature worker. Make a similar list 
of those which we wish to avoid. Do you find that the occupation 
already selected has many desirable features and few that are 
objectionable? 

9. If possible visit a factory in this vicinity. What does it 
produce? What materials does it use chiefly? Does it employ 
more men than women? (Explain reason for your answer.) Are 
its hours, wages, and working conditions satisfactory? What work 
or processes interested you most? Why? Do you think employees 
of that factory have good opportunities for promotion? Within a 
day or two after the visit write a paper on the subject. 

10. Name occupations in which artisans have acquired their 
skill in actual work rather than from school preparation. What 
advantages would most of them have had if they had had better 
training? Do girl's tend to drop out of school earlier than boys? 
In what types and kinds of industry do we find most women work- 
ers? What natural feminine characteristics are utilized in these 

vocations? 

11. In order that our schools should be democratic, must every- 
one receive practically the same amount of education? What 
qualities are necessary in leaders? What kinds of schools and 
courses encourage traits of this kind? Assuming that only the 
exceptional pupil has these qualities, how far should any school 
favor the exceptional pupil? 

12. What is meant by a profession? In this state is it possible 
for any person to practice one of the professions without having 
some professional training? (If possible learn the exact require- 
ments in this state.) To what extent have most of the pro- 
fessional men and women of this locality had some college work? 



188 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

How many of them do you imagine are college graduates? Name 
some qualities needed in each of the professions, including teaching. 
13. In most occupations of the higher type, what is the value 
of ability to express one's self clearly and effectively? (Compare a 
man who is splendidly qualified for some position in business or a 
profession but who does not have the art of persuasion, with one 
equally well qualified who does have it.) Do the "good talkers" 
tend to stay near the bottom or to rise to the top? If you were 
compelled to make a choice, would you learn to speak fluently or 
would you make a careful study of human nature? 












CHAPTER XII 
SCHOOL PREPARATION FOR BUSINESS 

1. Pre-vocational training 

a. General and special work in the grades 

b. General high school courses 

c. Technical high school courses 

(1) Mechanical arts 

(2) Domestic science 

d. Trade schools 

2. Vocational guidance 

a. The problem 

b. Vocational guidance from the school point of view 

c. Compulsory and part-time education 

d. School help in occupational placement and advance- 

ment 

Pre-Vocational Training 

! 142. General and Special Work in the Grades.— Only ^ hlem of 

one person out of every five who enters the first grade th^pu^ 
graduates from the eighth. In some cities three fourths out. 
of the boys and girls never reach the seventh grade. 
It is hardly possible that any community can educate 
properly, either for life in general or for civic duties, or 
for a life work, the children who drop out in the primary 
or lower grammar grades. Surely a great rich nation 
like ours can afford to give these young people the kind 
of training that will be of real value to them. Just as 
surely it should keep in school those of sufficient mental 
ability to be worth educating not only through the 
grammar school, but well into the high school. Our 
schools ought not to be turned into institutions for the 
. training of apprentices, but they should give information 

189 



190 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Some essen- 
tials of 
work in the 
grades. 



Practical 
work in the 
grades of 
the junior 
high school. 



Value of 
the older 
courses for 
college 
preparation. 



and practice that will help young people in securing and 
keeping jobs whenever they are compelled to drop out 
of school. 

General work in the three R's should lay a good founda- 
tion for every boy or girl who attends any American 
school. If the pupil knows how to read a little, he will 
in most cases continue to read. If he can add and sub- 
tract accurately, he has acquired practical skill of real 
value. If he can multiply and divide without mistake, 
he will probably continue to learn practical work with 
figures. Some civic training should also be given in the 
lower grades for the benefit of those who drop out at an 
inexcusably early age. Some knowledge of geography 
must be conveyed because the child should understand 
something about the region in which he lives. Our 
courses can not be organized, however, chiefly for the 
benefit of those who leave; they must be planned for the 
larger and better work done by those who continue in 
the higher grades. 

In the upper grammar grades, that is, in the early 
years of the junior high school, much more education can 
be gained than in the elementary years. If the student is 
of the type that undoubtedly will not continue and that 
needs special training for routine work, he can get some 
vocational studies in the seventh and eighth grades. 
Every girl should have instruction in domestic science or 
household arts, including a little sewing and a little 
cooking. Every boy should have opportunity to work 
with his hands at a bench, and possibly even with metals. 
Not only do we learn to do by doing, but when we can 
see results we are encouraged to go on. 

143. General High School Courses. — The old style 
classical education of a half century ago has largely dis- 
appeared. There are still a few college preparatory 
schools, specializing in Latin and Greek and mathematics 



PRE-VOCATIONAL TRAINING 191 

and devoting less attention to other subjects. The pres- 
ident of a medium sized but distinguished college told the 
writer a number of years ago that his institution was 
changing its requirements back to more Latin and more 
Greek because the students who took those preparatory 
courses were better equipped to do good work in college. 
Heads of engineering schools and of agricultural colleges 
declare that they prefer students thoroughly trained in 
academic work to students who have taken practical, 
vocational courses in high schools. Through the study 
of literary subjects the minds of the students are better 
trained for advanced work. 

These statements indicate that general courses in high ^fuetf 1 
schools are of real value for either academic or practical purely 
work in later years. The student who dislikes algebra or wor k. 
Latin, because he will never use it, loses the main point, 
namely, that education is not chiefly a means of finding 
how to do some minor technical thing. Education is a 
process by which the individual learns and develops his 
powers. If he has power and ability, the learning of the 
minor processes is not likely to delay him long on his 

upward way. 1 

144. Technical High School Courses — Mechanical Difficulty 

in training 

Arts. 2 — Every boy should know how to do things with the boy be- 
his hands. In olden days the home gave the lad fair S eh 00 i e ag e g 
training in practical arts because there were numerous 
things that he was forced to do around the house or farm. 
The ordinary modern home does not give the boy as many 
good opportunities. He must, therefore, depend chiefly 
upon the school. In the grades, especially in large cities, 
some attention is paid to woodshop work of a simple 
character. In many junior and special schools a boy can 

iln connection with this subject, discuss the absolute and general 
requirements of academic courses. See above §§116-125. 

2 It has seemed desirable to limit the discussion of technical courses 
chiefly to two — one for boys and one for girls. 



192 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Manual 
work for 
all high 
school 
boys. 



Nature of a 
good course 
in mechan- 
ical arts. 



get a little elementary work in metals. Unless the com- 
munity has a junior high school, most boys can not have 
any training in mechanics until they enter high school, 
and some high schools are not equipped for even the 
simplest type of vocational work. 




Agricultural Building, Michigan Agricultural College 

Every high school boy ought to have at least one year 
of general training in the handling of tools, in the making 
of simple patterns or designs, and in the construction of 
some objects, preferably in wood. The boy ought to 
know how to do ordinary repair work about a house. 
Whenever possible, he should be encouraged to have his 
own tool box, workbench, and set of instruments. Many 
boys who otherwise would have gone to work have found 
school interesting because it gave them a chance to do 
manual work. 

Courses in mechanical or practical arts are not designed 
chiefly for the student who can take only one year of 
that work. Most of the students found in classes of this 






PRE-VOCATIONAL TRAINING 193 

type want to study pre-vocational 1 work. They should 
have some courses in English, at least one in citizenship, 
and some other necessary subjects. They are not con- 
tinuing in school, however, in order to get a good general 
education but to earn a better living for themselves and 
those dependent upon them. The mechanical subjects 
are not taken, however, for the purpose of turning out 
skilled workers — carpenters, mechanicians, or printers — 
but to enable those who take them to enter the one of 
two or three industries in which they show the greatest 

interest. 

These courses give boys practice, therefore, in many Educational 
different types and kinds of work. They should enable vocational 
the student to do work with his hands in order that he ^Lf 
may know what he can make out of wood or iron, and how Jjjjj^jf 
the article must be made. If he is compelled to draw 
patterns of the things which he constructs, 2 in addition 
to making them, he is getting an opportunity of under- 
standing how his hands and his mind work together and 
how he can solve a problem in construction by using 
both his hands and his brains. Boys trained in good 
courses will find not only more openings in industries, 
but also better situations. They should rise to positions 
in which they direct rather than are directed. 

145. Technical Courses — Domestic Science. — Before Need of 

• 7 7 7 7 7 7 training in 

graduation, every high school girl should have a general home 
course in the elements of home making. The home of 
to-day gives plenty of opportunity for a modern girl to 
help, although it does not need her assistance as much as 
did the old home in which children were numerous and 
conveniences few. What has been said about the boys 
in regard to mechanical arts is equally true of the girls in 

i Vocational work actually trains for some distinct vocation or occu- 
pation. Pre- vocational work prepares for any one of several occupations 
by teaching underlying principles of those vocations and by giving a 
little experience with work in each. 

2 The student needs some work in mechanical drawing. 



economics. 



194 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Pre-voca- 
tional value 
of domestic 
science 
courses. 



Nature and 
limitations 
of trade 
schools. 



domestic arts. The girl needs practical work even more 
than does the boy, because most boys learn to make 
things for themselves, whereas most girls wait until they 
are shown. Domestic science prepares girls for home life 
in later years. It is, therefore, more desirable to reach a 
large number of girls with the fundamentals of the science 
than to give intensive training to a few. 

From the standpoint of a life career outside of the home, 
the domestic science courses are valuable chiefly to the 
students who specialize in home economics. They are 
pre-vocational in the same sense as are the courses in 
mechanical arts. That is, the object of courses of this 
type is not to turn out nurses, or caterers, or milliners, 
but to give the students some general knowledge of nurs- 
ing, cookery, sewing, and other practical arts. In this 
way a girl can study her own tastes and develop along the 
lines in which she is especially interested. If she is 
obliged to drop out of high school, she has a little knowl- 
edge which should be helpful in obtaining such a situation 
as will be worth her attention. If she stays in school and 
completes a good course in home economics, she will have 
some understanding of the underlying principles of 
hygiene, household management, nursing, and other 
allied subjects. She should then be fairly well prepared 
either to serve as a manager of a house of her own or as 
an assistant in some business. Like her brother who has 
taken work in manual arts, she should be able to find 
something good and advance quickly to something 
better. 

146. Trade Schools. — Comparatively few of our 
American public schools are really trade schools. A trade 
school is not one in which a student secures a general 
education, nor is it a technical institution which teaches 
a person the elements of several different branches. 
A trade school is one in which an apprentice learns the 



PRE- VOCATIONAL TRAINING 



195 



mechanics of a trade. The ordinary business college is a 
trade school because it turns out stenographers, typists, 
and bookkeepers. It usually gives to its students a 
brief course in all three. So far as technical experience 
with those subjects is concerned, the graduates of these 
schools may be well trained, but, as everyone knows, a 
good stenographer and typist is very much more than a 




Linotype Room in School of Printing 

girl who can take shorthand notes and turn out good work 
on a machine. She must know how to spell and to 
punctuate properly; she should have a fairly good general 
education. Most unsuccessful stenographers and typists 
are failures because they lack education rather than 
technical skill. 

Trade schools are of many types. In this country we ^fJU^ 1116 
have comparatively few, but in Germany the children who education 

TOT* 

are to be prepared for trades are usually separated at a apprentices 



196 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Contrast 
between 
foreign and 
American 
continua- 
tion schools. 



Need of 

work that 

suits our 

tastes, 

interests, 

and 

abilities. 



comparatively early age from those who are to go on 
with a higher education. Since a trade school makes a 
business of teaching a youth the vocation which he is 
expected later to practice, he is likely to learn the trade 
very much more quickly and very much better than he 
can as apprentice in a shop under a careless and frequently 
hostile foreman. 

Much of the work in the German and British continua- 
tion schools and in some of the continuation schools in 
this country is largely vocational. That is, practice is 
given almost exclusively in the work in which the appren- 
tice is being prepared. Many of our American continua- 
tion schools, on the other hand, give a general elementary 
education rather than trade preparation. Their work 
includes courses in English and citizenship, as well as 
pre-vocational work of different kinds. 

Vocational Guidance 

147. The Problem. — The man or woman who is com- 
pelled to devote his life to an occupation that is distaste- 
ful and otherwise unsatisfactory has a just complaint 
against society. It is possible that there is no work 
which satisfies the particular likes or dislikes of every 
person. But certainly a man that would make a good 
plumber is likely to be discontented if fate turns him 
into a house painter, and a man that might have become 
a first-class draftsman or mechanic is bound to be dis- 
satisfied if forced to remain a farmer. There is an old 
saying, " Happy is that man who has found his work." 
If we enjoy the thing that we are doing well, we shall 
agree with Professor Thomas that play is work which we 
like. In such tasks we shall put much more interest and 
enthusiasm than we can possibly have for something 
which we do simply because we need to earn a living. 
If our life work not only appeals to us, but, in addition, is 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 197 

the kind of work which we can do best, then we are happy, 
contented, and useful. 

We can not ask that the school find for us the right The 

problem of 

place in business. No teacher who is responsible lor a finding the 
large group of students can possibly know the tastes and 
preferences of those boys and girls well enough to give 
the best advice on the kind of work that each should 
have. Even parents, who ought to know their children 
thoroughly, may make mistakes when they try to find the 
right kind of occupation for their young people. Im- 
mature boys and girls are often more interested in leaving 
a teacher whom they do not like or studies that are hard 
and unpleasant than they are in picking out the vocation 
which they should follow. They are likely to take the 
first thing that comes to hand, if it will give them a 
fairly steady income. On the contrary, one ought not to 
wait in idleness until the right thing turns up, especially 
if the right thing is a job which can be filled only by an 
expert or by a worker of special charm or enthusiasm. 

148. Vocational Guidance from the School Point of Advice from 

, specialist 

View. — The best vocational guida e that can be and teacher, 
offered by the school is not necessarily given by a specialist 
who examines boys and girls and advises them what to 
do. That work is valuable if done correctly and under 
the right kind of adviser. The suggestions of a person 
who knows the student well are likely to be more helpful, 
if the one who gives the suggestions also understands the 
problem. But the busy teacher has no time to study 
carefully the qualities which are needed in any particular 
occupation. She can not be sure that the student is 
fitted for carpenter work rather than engineering, for 
stenography rather than teaching. 

Vocational guidance may be given in part through the J^j[ ah _ 
right kind of subjects, if taught in the right way. This i^ 
does not mean that the student should necessarily take taught. 



198 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Advantages 
of taking 
many- 
different 
subjects. 



Impossibil- 
ity of giving 
vocational 
guidance to 
students 
who leave 
school. 



Problems of 
compulsory 
education. 



technical or vocational subjects, but rather that he 
should form a wide acquaintance with the business world 
and with different industries and occupations, as well as 
with civic and social problems. There is no reason why 
his English class should not study questions of life 
careers. General work in citizenship and in commercial 
and industrial geography, especially if it includes voca- 
tional civics, should be of the very highest value. 

Every student should have a fair variety of subjects in 
the junior high school work and in the senior high school, 
if he takes a course in the latter institution. In this 
way he is able to learn whether it is wiser to remain in 
school and prepare for some career requiring advanced 
training or to make his selection of a career at the age of 
thirteen or fifteen. If he has a chance to study history 
and science, drawing, music, and possibly some commercial 
work, as well as English, mathematics, and foreign lan- 
guages, he may get an idea of what occupations interest 
him most. 

There is a disadvantage as well as an advantage in a 
great variety of work. If the student drops out before 
reaching the senior high school, he does not get sufficient 
training in any one thing to make him useful either in a 
machine shop, a printing establishment, a carpet factory, 
a lawyer's office, the bookkeeping department of a 
store, or any of a thousand other businesses which 
might be mentioned. It can thus be seen that if a 
student wants to have good vocational guidance and 
training, he must remain in school long enough to obtain 
a little of many things, and secure much of the one thing 
that is likely to help him most in his life work. 

149. Compulsory and Part-Time Education. — Students 
should not be allowed to leave school except in case of 
the direst necessity, but it is not just to make education 
compulsory if parents need the help of their boys and 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 



199 



girls. When the wage-earner of a family is disabled, 
the children must earn money unless society sees that the 
family has the necessities of life. If forced to labor, 
however, the boys and girls may be deprived of even a 
complete grammar 
school education. If 
children are not prop- 
erly educated, how 
can they, as adults, 
earn a living wage 
and provide for 
themselves and their 
families ? A com- 
plete system of 
public education is, 
therefore, essential 
to prevent child- 
labor, to fit those 
deprived of sight or 
hearing, and those 




Students in Laboratory 




Paving a Street 
Part Time Work in the University of Cincinnati 



200 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Possibility 
of dividing 
time be- 
tween 
school 
and shop 
or store. 



Need of 
better co- 
operation 
in occupa- 
tional place- 
ment. 



who are lame or crippled, for some work which they can 
do, and to give all boys and girls a preparation for life 
which will enable them to earn a good living. 1 

A large number of boys and girls of intermediate or 
high school age can not spend more than part of their 
time on school studies. The public owes to these youthful 
citizens opportunity for continuing their education if it is 
possible. Most of them ought to receive at least half -day 
training in schools, covering two or three subjects.- 
By half -day work we do not mean a half day in classes 
with additional preparation outside, but a half -day for 
class or shop work, including all preparation. In com- 
munities whose schools maintain morning and afternoon 
sessions, in which there are opportunities for employment 
of young people, the public should be willing to give 
school instruction to one group in the morning and to a 
similar group of practically the same size in the afternoon. 
Business men should be educated to the need of employ- 
ing these young people for the half-day in which they are 
not in school. Undoubtedly most employers will be 
glad to make some concessions and sacrifices, if necessary, 
in order that the poorer children may have this additional 
chance of continuing in school. 

150. School Help in Occupational Placement and 
Advancement. — When a youth wishes to find a job, he 
rarely asks much help from the school. Why? Partly 
because the school does not know what situations there 
are; 2 partly because the employers have not been 
sufficiently interested to cooperate with the schools. 
If business men and school administrators get together 
in the way proposed in the preceding section, they can 
much more easily help students to secure permanent 

1 Education is therefore connected with such apparently unrelated 
subjects as child labor, accident insurance, the minimum wage, etc. 
(§§170, 172, 180-183). 

2 Some school departments of commerce make a specialty of finding 
situations for their graduates. 



~ VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 201 

positions and aid employers in filling vacancies. If 
the vocational guidance experts continually consult the 
teachers, they should understand fairly well the tastes, 
interests, and preferences as well as the faults and the 
limitations of the students who want work. 1 

The schools can at least keep lists of vacancies in ggJPJP" 
different businesses. They can also make lists of students gude^ 
who want work, with rather full statements of the kind of business. 
things those students like best and the tasks which they 
can do best or actually have done well. The half-time 
work which has just been mentioned ought to give very 
valuable training. There is no teacher so good as 
experience, provided we can profit by the mistakes made 
in that experience. The day may come when technical 
schools will demand part-time work in some actual busi- 
ness as a requirement for graduation. In communities 
where part-time work is impossible or undesirable, 
actual, successful participation in some business for a 
school term may possibly be made a school requirement 
in many courses, a requirement for which school credit 

is given. 

The school is now reorganizing its courses and making IWof 
them better than they have ever been in the past. The better co- 
business community is giving help by its willingness to JJJ™ 
furnish employment when called upon to do so. Society nested 
in general must do its share by insisting that pupils 
do not drop out of school uneducated and incapable 
of doing any good work. The boys and girls must do 
their part by staying in school, if it is possible, by getting 
into the game and developing interest, even if they do 
not have it at first, and by finding that type of work which 

in some other situation within the same department. 



Questions 

1. What is the difference between pre-vocational work and 
vocational training? Should our schools be institutions for the 
training of apprentices, that is, should they give strictly vocational 
work? 

♦Primarily for teachers. 



202 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

they can do better than any other work and better than 
anyone else can do it. 

References 

1. Vocational education. Review of Reviews, 50 (1914), 195-211. 

2. The problem of the boy or girl that leaves school. Reed, 
Junior Wage Earners, 8-33. 

3. Industrial courses in the junior high school. Ltjtz, Wage 
Earning and Education (Cleveland Education Survey), 47-59. 

4. Vocational training for girls. Lutz, Wage Earning and 
Education (Cleveland Education Survey), 83-91. 

5. Manual training course with an industrial purpose. Gar- 
ritt, A. W., Manual Training Magazine, 17 (1916), 755-761. 

6. Training for the home. Lapp and Mote, Learning to Earn, 
143-163. 

7. The new education — making farmers. Abbott, L., Outlook, 
116 (1917), 473-475. 

8. Trade preparatory and trade extension training for boys and 
men at work. Lutz, Wage Earning and Education (Cleveland 
Education Survey), 69-82. 

9. Part-time education. Lapp and Mote, Learning to Earn, 
213-230. 

10. Part-time plan of an Illinois high school. Tubbs, E. V., 
The School Review, 26 (1918), 101-109. 

11. Educational agencies trying to solve the employment 
problem. Reed, Junior Wage Earners, 37-56. 

12. Occupational placement. Reed, Junior Wage Earners, 
91-111. 

13. Marketing the product of the public schools. Reed, Junior 
Wage Earners, 113-125. 

*BLOOMFHrLD, The Vocational Guidance of Youth. 
*Bloomfield, Readings in Vocational Guidance. 
*Brewer, The Vocational Guidance Movement. 
*Lapp and Mote, Learning to Earn. 
*Reed, Junior Wage Earners. 












VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 203 

2. What percentage of those who enter the first grade graduate 
from the sixth or seventh or eighth? (Try to get exact figures in 
the school system of this community.) Why is work in the three 
R's a splendid foundation for anyone who expects to make a success 
of his life career? Why should there be some civic training even 
below the seventh grade? 

3. Is there a junior high school in this city? If so, what grades 
does it include? What courses does it give? What special pre- 
vocational work does it offer? If there is no junior high school, is 
there departmental work in the grammar schools? Is any specific 
vocational work given in the upper grammar grades? 

4. What do you mean by a classical education? Why should 
college presidents and professors favor classical or rather strict 
academic training as good preparation for college? Is it true that 
every student should take some work that he probably never can 
use in a practical way? 

5. What pre-vocational courses are offered in the high school 
or high schools of this community? Explain why all boys should 
know how to do things with their hands. Should every high school 
boy have at least one year's work in manual arts? If so, why? If 
not, why not? As pre-vocational work, what is the value of a 
course in manual or mechanical arts? Aside from the practical 
value of work done, what should a fairly good student get out of 
his course? (Answer the last two questions for each of the other 
pre-vocational courses given in any high school of this community.) 

6. Explain why every girl should be able to do necessary work 
about a home. Do you believe that what has been said about the 
boys in regard to mechanical arts is equally true of girls in domestic 
arts? In a first-class high school of commerce, what is the value of 
nonvocational subjects, for example, those in economics or in applied 
economics such as commercial geography, industrialism, and finance? 

7. What is a trade school? What are the limitations of the 
ordinary trade school? Is it possible for a technical high school to 
give all the advantages of a trade education with the additional oppor- 
tunities of a fairly general course? What is a continuation school? 
In continuation school work, what should be required of every boy 
or girl under sixteen who has been forced to drop out of school? 

8. Why must society try to find for most workers the work 
which they can do best? If work that we like is play, what advantage 
is there to society in training us for, and letting us have, work that 
we want? Do you know any person who never would be content in any 
ordinary situation? If so, can you give reasons for the discontent? 



204 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

9. What is meant by vocational guidance? What are the ad- 
vantages of vocational guidance by an expert in that subject? What 
is the value of vocational guidance by those who know us weil? Why 
is it true that "vocational guidance may be given in part by the 
right kind of subject, if taught in the right way?" Name three sub- 
jects that can be used in that way and explain how they should be 
taught in order to be valuable in helping us prepare for life careers. 

10. If the vast majority of students drop out before they reach 
the senior high school (tenth grade), should there be vocational 
guidance for them? If so, what should be done for them (1) in the 
subjects they should take, (2) in pre-vocational work, and (3) in 
specific preparation for a specific vocation? What are the advan- 
tages (a) of getting a general education; (6) of studying a little in 
each of several pre-vocational branches? What are the disadvan- 
tages in a great variety of work? Show that in order to get good 
vocational guidance a student must remain in school beyond the 
ninth grade. 

1 1 . Why should education be compulsory? What is the problem 
of compulsory education for poor families in an industrial com- 
munity? Why is compulsory education closely connected with 
such apparently unrelated subjects as poor relief (§235), workmen's 
compensation (§182), and unemployment (§180). 

12. What is meant by part-time education? For what classes 
of students ought a community to arrange a schedule of half-time 
education and of half time for industry? If such an arrangement 
can not be made, is it desirable that a high school graduate should 
be compelled to occupy successfully a business situation for at least 
one quarter or one semester? Explain your answer. 

13. In the schools of this city, what persons or agencies keep 
lists of students who want work and cooperate with the business 
men of this locality? Should there not be some well organized 
bureau to learn of business vacancies and to supply just the person 
who is best prepared, if such a student or former student is avail- 
able? Is there any danger that if such a bureau were connected 
with the schools, boys or girls would be tempted to drop out in 
order to earn money? 

14. What do you understand by "scientific management"? 
Why has scientific management been an advantage to employers? 
Why should it be used to secure a better placement of workers, 
either beginners or older employees? What should the school and 
community do in working out more satisfactory ways of giving the 
students better preparation for a life career? 






CHAPTER XIII 

BUSINESS AND SOCIETY 

1. Wealth and property— private and public 

a. What wealth is 

b. Importance of production 

c. The problem of distribution 

d. Private property 

(1) Private property and thrift 
.(2) Advantages and limitations of private property 

e. Public property 

2. Business, private and public 

a. Personal freedom 

b. Private enterprise 

c. Competition and monopoly 

d. Large scale industry and division of labor 

e. Private corporations 

/. Privately owned public service corporations 
g. Public ownership or management 
h. Government and the farmer 

3. Public control of business 

a. General 

b. Policy of a protective tariff 

c. State anti-trust laws 

d. National anti-trust legislation 

e. Control of railways 

Wealth and Property— Private and Public 
151. What Wealth Is.— Any kind of material goods is ^s of 
wealth. The clothing we wear, the books we read, the possessions. 
pencils and paper we use are familiar forms of wealth. 
These are personal property. This term also includes 
household furniture, cooking utensils, garden tools, plows, 
harrows, and other farm instruments 

205 



206 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Fairly dur- 
able goods 
created by 



man. 



Value of 
different 
kinds of 
land. 



Use of 
wealth. 

Desirable 
forms of 
wealth. 



Why wealth 
can not be 
created 
without 
work. 



Another kind of wealth consists not of the goods that 
we consume, but of more durable articles such as houses 
and buildings, and machinery by which those goods are 
produced. A factory with its equipment is a very import- 
ant form of wealth as it is kept constantly at work turning 
out new products. The steam railroad has its stations, 
roundhouses, and workshops, its numerous engines, 
passenger coaches, and freight cars. It is like the 
factory in that it makes goods more valuable than they 
were before. 

Still another type of wealth is found in land, which is 
especially valuable because it can not be taken away. 
Its value consists not, however, in the land itself, but in 
what it will produce. If it is agricultural land, it is 
valuable because of the elements of the top soil in which 
we may grow cereals or vegetables. If it is forest land, 
its worth depends upon the size and qualities of its timber. 
If it is mineral land, its treasures can be mined. 

All these forms of wealth are alike in that they represent 
material goods which are used to satisfy human wants. 

152. Importance of Production. — Every society wants 
as much wealth as it can secure. It does not wish to 
have all of its wealth in the form of goods ready for 
consumption, nor does it want all of them in machines 
and other forms of capital, which are used simply to 
create more wealth. It desires enough land to produce 
the food and minerals that it needs. 

It should be an important aim of any people to produce 
a large amount of wealth. Otherwise, not enough is 
created year by year to provide the food, clothing, and 
other necessities and comforts that the people should 
have. In order to do this, there should be an abundance 
of land and artificial capital. People must be willing to 
work reasonably long hours at tasks that really do pro- 
duce something valuable, and not simply transfer wealth 






WEALTH AND PROPERTY 207 

from one hand to another. We must be thrifty and save 
not simply for ourselves, but in order that those who 
come after us may have at least as much as we. 

153. The Problem of Distribution.— By distribution gw^ 
we mean the dividing up of the wealth that is produced help create 

• . ,1 £ j +• wealth; 

among those who take part in the process oi production. wha t each 
The laborer contributes a large share, for he gives his receives. 
labor. In return he receives wages. The capitalist 
furnishes the money for the purchase of buildings, 
machinery, and materials. He, also, must have a return 
or he will not loan the money needed for these different 
forms of capital. The person that owns the land must 
receive a share, for otherwise he would not allow the land 
to be used for this particular purpose. He might even 
permit it to remain idle. The man who manages the 
business must also have some share, because he is obliged 
to rent the land, borrow the money, and hire the workers; 
and he will not take all of these risks unless he is likely 
to make a reasonable profit. 

Probably one or two of these persons will have an J^^g on 
advantage over the others. Since they are human, they c f wealth 
will usually take advantage of the others if they can. al °^ a y° 
The landlord who can furnish the land or not, as he wishes, occur. 
is likely to charge all that he can possibly get. The 
capitalist and manager will seek to make large profits for 
themselves at the expense of the landlord and the worker. 
If the workers can organize, they will demand and receive 
a much larger share than they otherwise would have. 
There is a serious economic problem connected with the 
distributing or dividing up of goods produced by these 
persons working together. Each is entitled to his own 
share of the product. If he does not get it, injustice has 
been done to him. 

154. Private Property and Thrift.— Comparatively 
little wealth is now owned by the public; the rest we 



208 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Great 
extent of 
private 
property. 



Disadvan- 
tages of 
common 
property. 



Economic 
advantages 
of private 
property. 



Political 
advantages 
of private 
ownership. 



call private property. Undoubtedly the institution of 
private property is one of the most important economic 
characteristics of society to-day. Clothing, weapons, 
tools, and other personal effects of civilized man have 
always been privately owned. To-day land may be owned 
by anyone who can buy it ; but for practically ten centur- 
ies in the Middle Ages land was not owned privately. 

Without private ownership of property, there would be 
little inducement to work except for the satisfaction of 
immediate needs. Few people would economize if their 
savings were placed in a common fund, to which others 
contributed little or nothing. We want something of our 
own laid away for a rainy day. We desire property not 
only for its own direct use, but also for the income which 
savings will produce. Since the time may come when the 
chief wage-earner of a family will be old, disabled, or dead, 
he wishes to provide for those dependent on him. 

Saving must be encouraged by society, not only 
because people will work harder if they are allowed to 
accumulate property, but because our vast modern system 
of production would be impossible without a large amount 
of capital. Thrift is a civic duty even in a country of 
apparently unlimited resources. The institution of 
private property exists, therefore, not as a natural right, 
but because of its usefulness to society. Through it 
society promotes the individual welfare of its members 
and the general welfare of the whole group. 

155. Advantages and Limitations of Private Property. — 
It would be difficult for individuals to own private property, 
however, if the public did not encourage private owner- 
ship. Our governments protect property in order that a 
man who wants it may be able to acquire it, and for the 
further reason that anyone who owns goods is interested 
in good government and the protection of property as 
well as of life. William R. George, founder of the George 



WEALTH AND PROPERTY 20$ 

Junior Republic, said that the boys of his schools may 
have been lawless and willing to destroy or steal other 
people's goods before they became citizens of some 
Republic and were allowed to acquire property. When 
they became owners, however, they immediately learned 
to look at things from a different point of view and 
very jealously guarded their own property, together with 
their right to acquire it and to keep it. 

No man who owns property has the right to use it for ^j^ 
the iniurv of another. If he drives a car, he must take of property 

, T , . , t i , , owners. 

reasonable care on the streets. In his home he ought to 
avoid those things which injure his neighbors. In a 
residence district one may not establish an objectionable 
business such as a boiler factory. It is impossible, how- 
ever, to prohibit any except the worst nuisances. It is 
therefore only fair that all people should, in every way in 
their power, be good neighbors. 

Some people imagine that a spendthrift is a valuable gjj^jg" 
member of society because he makes work for a number wisely. 
of people; but the spendthrift is simply destroying wealth, 
and those same workers can be employed producing 
something useful. 

156. Public Property.— Public property is of many JJgJf^ 
different kinds. Roads and highways belong not to the state and 
owners of the adjoining property, but to the public. 1 
In every city, there is likely to be a publicly owned library 
and a city hall in addition to school buildings and fire 
engine houses. Many communities have invested large 
sums in bridges, in public docks, or in other public 
property used for communication or transportation. 
In many municipalities electric light plants, systems of 
water works, and public railways or subway tunnels belong 
to the public. 

i So long as this property is used for street purposes, it belongs to the 
state. When it is no longer needed as a highway, one-half reverts to 
the owners of property on either side of the street. 



210 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Property 
owned by 
the Ameri- 
can nation. 



Contrast 
between 
past and 
present. 



Why per- 
sonal free- 
dom is 
only a be- 
ginning. 



Uncle Sam owns a great deal of property. At one time 
most of the land in the new states of the western Missis- 
sippi basin and other areas was public domain, owned 
and controlled by him. Most of this land was given to 
settlers. Unfortunately much of the other land was 
granted unwisely to individuals. Certain valuable forests, 
water powers, and water rights should have been retained 
by the public. The American people did not understand 
the need of keeping in their own possession natural 
utilities which no private corporation should have been 
allowed to secure. They should have begun many 
decades before they did the present policy of conservation 
of natural resources. However, the public property of 
the United States now includes not only public buildings, 
but also many rivers, parks, and forest reserves. More- 
over, the national government still owns an immense 
amount of land upon which there are mineral deposits. 1 

Business, Private and Public 

157. Personal Freedom. — Two thousand years ago 
most people were slaves. Four hundred years ago most 
of them were serfs (§188). To-day practically all are 
free. From the individual point of view, personal 
freedom is the most important characteristic of the 
modern world. It does not give a man business ability, 
nor does it necessarily bring him business education, 
training, and skill. Personal freedom certainly does not 
make him a capitalist. It gives opportunities rather than 
accomplishes results. Whether these opportunities will be 
well used depends upon the person himself — his industry, 
his ambition, and his energy. Success depends also upon 
his surroundings. If a man possesses health, brains, and 
the desire to succeed, it is probable that he will secure 
education, even under difficulties, and will make unfavor- 

1 Private parties may lease coal lands and mine the mineral by pay- 
ing a royalty to the national government. 



BUSINESS, PRIVATE AND PUBLIC 211 

able conditions help him succeed. Most self-made men of 
the present have come up from the ranks, and consider their 
poverty one of the greatest aids to their advancement. 

158. Private Enterprise.— If a boy were obliged to ^J^jjjf 
follow in the footsteps of his father, it is doubtful whether yesterday 
he would go farther than his father did. When a society an t0 " ay 
is divided into well marked classes, and a person's class 

is fixed by his birth, there is no real incentive for him to 
improve his condition. In the modern world classes are 
not separated in that way from one another, and a worker 
is allowed to choose the work that he wishes to do. 

Never before have boys and girls had the chance that ^and^" 
thev have to-day to attend school and select courses limitations 

J ■ , . . . - i •/. in selecting 

that will be of the greatest value m preparation lor a lite uf e work, 
career. Because American cities are growing and Ameri- 
can business is expanding constantly, those who have the 
ability and can secure the money have as great oppor- 
tunity for new enterprise as ever existed. America par- 
ticularly encourages the invention of new machines and 
the development of new undertakings, chiefly by giving 
patents to inventors. If a man is uneducated, however, 
he can not undertake a business or profession requiring 
special training, such as law or medicine. 

159. Competition and Monopoly.— If a person does Extend 
the same thing that others do, he may be said to compete of competi- 
with them. If each is producing an article for sale, the 

one who produces the best article, most cheaply, will sell 
the most goods, other things being equal. In the busi- 
ness world competition is very keen, because it is possible 
to produce more than people need. The person who is 
indolent or careless produces little and receives less. 
Under competition he is likely to be replaced by others 
who do the necessary task and do it better. If there is 
competition, therefore, we strive to excel, not chiefly 
because we like to be first, but because the returns 



212 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Nature of 
and objec- 
tions to 
monopoly 



How most 

modern 

workers 

have 

become 

specialists. 



Why so 
much 
modern in- 
dustry is 
carried on 
in large 
factories. 



are greatest to those who can make their work really 
successful. 

If a person can produce an article far superior to any 
made by his competitors, he ceases to compete with others 
and may have a monopoly. If large corporations control 
the output of articles in their particular business, we say 
that they have a monopoly in that line (§ 28). Monopoly 
is control of a market by a producer or seller. A monopoly 
may, however, be an individual monopoly such as that 
held by an attorney or a surgeon who is much abler than 
any of his associates. Business men desire monopoly 
because they wish to command high prices and therefore 
make unusually large profits. The public fear monopoly 
since, as consumers, they do not wish to pay exorbitant 
prices. 

160. Large Scale Industry and Division of Labor. — 
When every family produced almost everything it needed, 
each man raised his own food, made his own clothing and 
shoes, in addition to the furniture and utensils of his 
home, and, with the help of his neighbors, built his own 
house. The worker to-day is not a jack-of -all-trades; 
he is a specialist. His specialty may be diseases of the 
eye, or corporation law, or the teaching of physics. It 
may be the specialized work of engineer, bookkeeper, or 
watchman, or simply one of a thousand processes into 
which the work of a factory is divided. The term division 
of labor is applied to work of the last type. 

It is possible to increase production greatly by a division 
of labor, a process through which each worker acquires 
skill and speed for his specialized task. As any work 
which is subdivided into a thousand, or a hundred, or 
even a dozen operations can not be done in a small shop 
or factory, modern industry naturally is on a large scale. 
The invention of machines, the improvement of machin- 
ery, and the increased size of machines is a further reason 



BUSINESS, PRIVATE AND PUBLIC 



213 



for using large factories rather than small shops. As large 
factories and great combinations of industrial plants or 
transportation systems can not be owned by the ordinary 
capitalist, even if he is a millionaire, the state allows 
many investors to put their savings together in order to 
form a corporation. 




Division op Labor in a Large Factory 

161. Private Corporations.— A corporation is a group Why .coj- 
of persons legally associated and empowered by a govern- are neces- 

^ , . , • sary in large 

ment to act as one person m doing business or in per- ?cale 
forming some other social service. In the Middle Ages, industries, 
when small shops were the only factories, every shop was 
managed by a master with the help of a few assistants and 
apprentices. Even a hundred years ago, most business 
houses were managed by a single individual. If he did 
not have sufficient capital or needed the expert advice of 
some friend, a partnership was formed. A personal busi- 
ness or a partnership suffers when the head, or one of the 
heads, dies. A corporation, on the contrary, continues 



214 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



indefinitely, because it is not dependent on any par- 
ticular person or persons. It is made up of the stock- 
holders who furnish the capital, and it has a board of 
directors that direct its affairs and other officials selected 




Copyright, Underwood and Underwood 

The Largest Power House in the World 

by the directors. Practically all modern business on a 
large scale is done, therefore, through corporations. 
A very large corporation is usually called a trust. 

Corporations are created by law, by the granting of 
charters, and ordinarily have numerous legal privileges. 
ations wSch Their charters provide a plan for electing officials, explain 
it creates. now mucn capital stock may be issued, and limit the work 
which the corporation may undertake. When an indivi- 
dual tries to make use of a patent, he needs more capital 
than he usually can furnish. A corporation can not only 
buy up one patent, but it can secure a number of patents 
that are useful in many different processes. Corporations 



Why the 
public 
should con 



BUSINESS, PRIVATE AND PUBLIC 



215 



What a 
street car 



are subject to public supervision and control. The govern- 
ment may prevent a corporation from charging excessive 
prices for its goods or services, and, if it tends to become 
a monopoly, may dissolve it altogether (§168). 

162. Privately Owned Public Service Corporations. — 
Some private corporations have an unusually large company 

,»..,! ,-, j , must do or 

number of privileges because they are expected to serve can not do. 

the public directly, and they can not do so unless they have 

special opportunities. For example, a street car company 

has the right to lay tracks on public streets, and it usually 

has a monopoly of the service which is given on those 

streets. It is allowed to charge certain rates, but it may 

not raise rates without special permission. By its charter 

and by law it is required to give uninterrupted service. 

Even in case of strike it must try to provide the public 

with cars. 

What the street car is to a community or metro- What a rail- 

,i -i • ^ i ± -j. road may or 

pohtan area, the steam railway is to a larger territory, may not do. 
A railroad company has a special charter and numerous 
privileges. In a mountainous region it may have exclusive 
control of the best gaps and river valleys. If it wishes 




Photo oy R. J, Waters & Co, 

Car of the San Francisco Municipal Railway 



216 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



to lay tracks within a city, it may exercise the right of 
eminent domain (§246) and force people to sell the 
property needed for its right of way. A steam railway 
is subject to public supervision in many ways, for example, 
it must adopt modern safety devices and may not charge 
higher rates than the government permits (§169). 



Public ser- 
vice cor- 
porations 
and 

common 
carriers. 




Copyright, Underwood and Underwood 

Purifying Water — Large Distributing Plant 

We do not realize how much we depend upon local and 
general railway companies in transporting ourselves and 
the articles we need. It is evident, however, that rail- 
ways are and should be public service corporations, which 
must give service corresponding to the amount paid, and 
must carry any passenger who wishes to travel and any 
goods which a shipper wishes to send. We call such 
organizations common carriers. 1 

Tilf a passenger pays his fare or a shipper the freight charges, no 
common carrier can refuse to perform the service requested. 



BUSINESS, PRIVATE AND PUBLIC 



217 



163. Public Ownership or Management.— Some of the ^jg v s |£~ 
public service work that is absolutely necessary for every ^bectly 
community and nation is done, not by privately owned government, 
corporations, but through our governments. Two good 
examples of this type of public ownership and manage- 




Copyright, Underwood and Underwood 

Distribution of Packages in Post Office 

ment are furnished by municipal water plants and by the 
national post office system. 

Almost all large cities in the United States own their Water ^ 
water systems. There are two particularly good reasons examples of 

. . municipal 

for this. One is the fact that water is the most important ownership, 
necessity of life, and the second is that if water supplies 
are not protected, the water may contain filth or disease 
germs. In order to secure good supplies of water, Ameri- 
can cities have incurred considerable expense in controlling 
lakes, rivers, and water sheds, and in building large con- i§f 



218 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



The post 
office as a 
govern- 
mental 
business. 



Agricultural 
agencies and 
methods of 
the govern- 
ment. 



duits and immense reservoirs. Every street is provided 
with mains and every household secures its supply through 
its own lateral. In order that the health of a city may 
be as good as possible, municipal governments are 
interested in having a supply of water that is abundant 
and pure. 

In the days of Benjamin Franklin, only a few letters 
were carried by the public post office from town to town. 
At the present time, the post office does a business equalled 
by that of only a few private companies. It carries 
letters at a rate of two cents an ounce, magazines direct 
from the publishers for about a cent a pound, and parcels 
at a rate depending upon weight and upon the distance 
they are sent. In addition, the larger post offices issue 
money orders and have postal savings banks, in which 
small amounts may be deposited. The post office may 
not always have been well managed, but it is certainly the 
best example that we have of a national public business. 

164. Government and the Farmer. — In connection 
with the national government at Washington, there is a 
Department of Agriculture, which helps the farmers, for 
example, by distributing free seeds. In most states there 
are state agricultural colleges, which give regular courses 
to farmers and others. In connection with each of 
these colleges the national government usually main- 
tains one or more experiment stations at which experts 
study soils of that region and experiment with plants 
which may be of particular value to the farmers. In 
many states there are also vacation schools, which hold 
sessions for short periods, and demonstration trains, 
which bring to the farmers information on the latest 
methods in agriculture. In some sections only the 
younger farmers seem to be particularly interested in 
these opportunities, but in other localities farmers of all 
ages and classes make use of them. 



BUSINESS, PRIVATE AND PUBLIC 



219 



The national government, either directly or through fXTraf"" 
these local organizations, studies diseases of animals and experiments 
plants. For example, it has attempted to stop the ravages government. 
of the Mexican boll 
weevil, which has threat- 
ened to destroy our cotton 
crop. The government 
also sends out explorers to 
find new kinds and varie- 
ties of plants. Wheat 
from Siberia and alfalfa 
from South America are 
good examples of plants 
which are superior, for 
cold and warm regions 
respectively, to those 
raised formerly. The 
government is constant- 
ly at work trying to 
develop better varieties 
of corn, wheat, and other valuable cereals or vegetables. 

Public Control of Business 

165. General. — Every nation wants to produce as Attitude of 
much wealth and to do as much business as possible, groups to- 
For that reason, it encourages individuals to save money, SuneStand 
to invest it in corporations, and to do business on a large business. 
scale. As the chief object of any government is to protect 
its people, it is necessary that it should do more than 
simply encourage business. Our different governments, 
national, state, and local, must see that business does not 
injure the public. Many people believe that a govern- 
ment should limit itself to warding off economic dangers 
from which the citizens can not protect themselves. A 
few believe that governments should aid business in every 




Corn Grown Under Scientific 
Agriculture 



220 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Ways in 
which gov- 
ernment 
can protect 
and promote 
business. 



Regulation 
and control 
of indus- 
tries. 



Early need 
of tariff. 



The argu- 
ment for a 
protective 
tariff. 



way possible, provided that the public is fully safe- 
guarded, contending that, if business is good, the public 
will be benefited. 

In doing business with one another, it is necessary for 
us to have laws defining the rights and obligations of 
each party to any transaction. This is the part of law 
known as the law of contracts. When one person makes 
an agreement with another, whether he is buyer, seller, 
or agent, he is making a contract. Since most business 
is done, not for cash, but on credit, it is necessary that the 
government should encourage and carefully supervise 
a good banking system. In these banks we deposit 
money and through them the business man draws checks 
for the payment of his bills. A system of credit is abso- 
lutely necessary for the development of business over 
extensive areas and on a large scale. 

We have already considered and shall soon study 
further (§§162, 167-169) ways in which the government 
controls trusts or public service corporations, such as the 
water systems and railways. In crowded districts it 
should either prohibit or limit very dangerous or objection- 
able industries, such as powder factories and gas works. 

166. Policy of a Protective Tariff. — For a few years 
after we became independent of Great Britain, our 
national government did not have the right to levy tariffs 1 
upon goods brought in from other countries. When our 
present Constitution was adopted and went into effect in 
1789, it gave Congress the right to levy tariffs. In the 
preamble of the first tariff act, the statement was made that 
the tariff was not simply for government revenue, but to 
protect, and thus encourage, American manufacturers. 

During most of the time since 1789 we have had pro- 
tective tariffs. The plan of the protective tariff is this: 
when an American manufacturer is producing goods of a 

iA tariff is a list or schedule of imported articles with the rates of 
duty to be paid. 



PUBLIC CONTROL OF BUSINESS 221 

certain type which compete in American markets 
with similar European goods made by cheaper labor 
abroad, it seems necessary to give protection to the Ameri- 
can manufacturer. If the cost of making any goods in 
America is forty per cent higher than it is in Europe, the 
foreign goods will undersell the American unless the 
importer pays a tariff duty of at least thirty per cent. 
With the freight costs, this extra charge will make the 
price of the foreign goods in this country at least as 
high as the cost of the American-made commodities. 

Undoubtedly this system of encouraging American *%%££* 
manufacturers is an important reason why the United vantages of 
States is the most important manufacturing nation in the tive tariff. 
world. We owe our industrial progress, however, to a 
very great extent, to our almost limitless natural 
resources, to " Yankee" inventiveness, and to the 
unusually high intelligence and skill of the American 
• worker. During some periods the protective rates were 
unnecessarily high. Instead of simply protecting the 
American manufacturer, they encouraged him to be 
careless, because he did not need to be economical. 

167. State Anti-Trust Laws.— The industrial corpora- Problems of 
tions mentioned above (§161) are organized almost entirely industrial 
under state laws. It is necessary, therefore, that they $££?' 
should be controlled largely by state laws, especially as 
the national government has no direct control over 
industry. It is difficult for the state governments to do 
this because no large corporation or trust is likely to do 
business exclusively within the state in which it is 
chartered, and in some cases it does not attempt to do 
any business within that state. 1 

i This serious evil is due to the fact that some states have made a 
business of encouraging corporations to take out charters from their 
state governments. These charters have granted powers which no 
state should confer upon a business corporation. The corporation was 
thus empowered to do business in other states without proper arrange- 
ments for control of the corporation. 



222 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Problem of 
state con- 
trol of 
trusts. 



Provisions 
and suc- 
cesses of 
state anti- 
trust laws. 



Limited 
national 
control of 
industry. 



Provisions 
and enforce- 
ment of the 
Sherman 
Anti-Trust 
Act. 



When the control of one state is more lenient than 
that of another, large companies will take out their incor- 
poration papers in that state. This policy makes it 
possible for a corporation to evade a strict corporation 
law and makes it difficult, if not impossible, for any state 
properly to enforce a reasonably severe law for the control of 
corporations. This failure is a loss to that state and 
a still greater loss to the entire country. 

If there is competition in one city or area, a trust will 
try to undersell its competitors in that section by cutting 
prices there, although its prices elsewhere are still high. 
In a few states no large corporation or trust is allowed to 
charge a higher price in one locality than in another. 
Many of the state anti-trust laws prohibit monopoly. 
It is difficult, however, to enforce successfully an anti- 
monopoly law. To be sure, Missouri did prove that a 
number of small oil companies operating in that state 
were branches of the great Standard Oil Company. 
Texas made use of this evidence. It sued the Standard 
Oil Company because of violation of its anti-trust 
monopoly law and collected fines amounting to more 
than two million dollars. As a rule, it is difficult either 
to make or to enforce an anti-trust law which controls 
the great corporations without injuring the little business 
concerns. The whole problem of controlling the trusts 
by state laws is still full of difficulties. 

168. National Anti-Trust Legislation. — According to 
the national Constitution, Congress regulates commerce 
among the several states, but industry is not mentioned 
because it is supposed to be completely under the control 
of the separate states. 

In 1890 Congress passed what is known as the Sherman 
Anti-Trust Act, which prohibits not only monopolies but 
also combinations or conspiracies in restraint of interstate 
trade. This law has been enforced against many huge 



PUBLIC CONTROL OF BUSINESS 223 

corporations that have charged excessive prices or used 
unfair methods in dealing with the people who have 
purchased their goods. Some of these combinations, 
such as the Tobacco Trust and the Standard Oil Trust, were 
broken up, although the smaller companies of which the 
great combination was made have continued to do business 

as usual. 

Within recent years the Sherman act has been JJewg^ 
improved 1 . Corporations may not charge one price in one lation. 
locality and an entirely different price in another section 
when the goods should be sold for approximately the same 
amount. Producers may not compel the middlemen who 
sell their goods to sell these goods exclusively or to sell 
them at a stipulated price. Because one person sometimes 
held a hundred or more offices in different corporations, 
and in that way controlled directly one great business, 
and indirectly a score of others, 2 no individual is now 
allowed to be a director in more than one huge bank or 
trust or railway company. 

169. Control of Railways. — Railways are likely to be How rail- 

' _ ., , , , M ways some- 

monopolies. If a town has but one railway, that railway times take 

certainly has an almost complete monopoly of the trans- * f p^f c ge 
portation of goods to the town or away from it. But necessity. 
railways are absolute necessities to the business world in 
these days when goods are produced in one section and 
used in others. Sometimes the railroads have made a 
business of overcharging for the transportation of freight. 
Moreover, they have charged higher rates from town A 
to town B than for a longer distance from town A to 
town C. 

The states first tried to control the railways by investi- Vseoi^ 
gating the books of the companies and making public me thods by 
the facts. If the rates were unnecessarily high, or if the states. 

lAmong the newer national anti-trust laws, the Clayton Act is the 
most important. ,, 

2 This arrangement was known as "interlocking directorates. 



224 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Powers and 
methods of 
the Inter- 
state Com- 
merce 
Commission. 



unfair charges were being made between towns or between 
shippers, public pressure could then be brought to bear 
upon the railways to force them to make the rates just 
and fair. Most states now have railway commissions which 
can fix the maximum rates that any railway may charge. 




Copyright, Harris and Ewing 

The Interstate Commerce Commission 

In 1887 the national government passed its first inter- 
state commerce law. It created an Interstate Commerce 
Commission. This commission now consists of seven 
members. 1 It has the right to investigate the rates 
charged by railroads for any goods transported from one 
state to another. It compels all railroads to serve as 
common carriers. Its most important power is to fix the 
maximum rates which shall be charged for freight between 
any two points. 2 The Interstate Commerce Commission 

iA new interstate commerce commission law was passed in 1906. 

2 When it has decided what the rate shall be, the rate goes into effect. 
If the railway thinks this maximum is too low, it is obliged to bring 
suit before the national courts/and it must win its suit before the rates 
may be raised. However, the railways do make appeals to the com- 
mission directly to raise the rates that they are allowed to charge. 



PUBLIC CONTROL OF BUSINESS 225 

has done a valuable work in regulating the freight business 
of the railways in all parts of the country. 

References 

1. Some elementary economic facts. Leavitt and Brown, 
Elementary Social Science, 1—11. 

2. Land. Leavitt and Brown, Elementary Social Science, 12-20. 

3. Capital. Leavitt and Brown, Elementary Social Science, 

31-39. 

4. Management. Leavitt and Brown, Elementary Social 

Science, 40-51. 

5. Public welfare and private property. Tufts, The Heal 
Business of Living, 236-252. 

6. Conservation of coal. Van Hise, Conservation of Natural 
Resources, 23-61. 

7. The corporation as a mode of operation. Tufts, The Real 
Business of Living, 156-161. 

8. Machine industry. Marshall and Lyon, Our Economic 
Organization, 207-230. 

9. Inventions. Thomas, W. I., Lessons in Community and 
National Life (Department of the Interior), Lesson C 9. 

10. Iron and steel. Smith, J. R., Lessons in Community and 
National Life (Department of the Interior), Lesson C 10. 

11. Municipal public utilities. Ashley, The New Civics, 
§§177-184. 

12. The national post office. Marriott, Uncle Sa?n's Business, 

281-296. 

13. What the United States does for the farmer. Marriott, 
Uncle Sam's Business, 229-236. 

14. Business and industry as public service. Tufts, The Real 
Business of Living, 210-221. 

15. Protective tariffs. Marriott, How Americans are Gov- 
erned, 61-70. 

16. Control of private business. Tufts, The Real Business of 
Living, 222-235. 

17. Trusts and monopolies. Marriott, How Americans are 
Governed, 81-89. 

18. Fair competition. Tufts, The Real Business of Living, 

273-281. 

19. Railway rates. Marriott, How Americans are Governed, 
71-80. 



226 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

*Tufts, The Real Business of Living, Part II. 
*Marshall and Lyon, Our Economic Organization. 
*Ely et al., Outlines of Economics, especially Book II, Parts III 
and VI. 

*Ely, Property and Contract, Part I and App, III. 
*Taussig, Principles of Economics, I, Book I. 
* Johnson, American Railway Transportation. 

Questions 

1. What is wealth? What is personal property? Distinguish 
between land, ordinary or artificial capital, and goods ready for 
consumption. Show that in order to create enough wealth for 
good standards of living we must have artificial capital and we 
must work reasonably long hours. 

2. If production is the creation of wealth, what is distribution? 
Among what persons is the product distributed? What does each 
receive. Why is the product sometimes distributed unjustly? 

3. What is private ownership? Name some advantages, nega- 
tive and positive, of private ownership of property. Why are 
people who have property likely to be better citizens than those 
who have not? What are taxes? What is the right of eminent 
domain? 

4. Are the following usually owned privately or publicly: 
Houses, bonds, water mains, pencils, motorcycles, plows, electric 
light poles, policemen's uniforms, dining room tables, textbooks, 
business blocks, post offices, street cars, factory machinery, loco- 
motives? Distinguish between private goods that are capital and 
those that are not. 

5. Name kinds of public property owned by cities. What 
public property is owned by Uncle Sam? What do you understand 
by the conservation of natural resources? Learn what has already 
been done to conserve our supplies of coal, our forests, and our 
water supplies. 

6. Contrast the personal freedom of to-day with the status of 
the common people two thousand years ago and four hundred years 
ago. What are the advantages and the limitations of personal 
freedom? Why is a country that permits private enterprise a good 
one in which to live? 

7. What is competition? What is monopoly? How much of 

the output or product must a large business corporation have before 

it has a monopoly? 

*Primarily for teachers. 



PUBLIC CONTROL OF BUSINESS 227 

8. When is a man a specialist? Explain the expression " divi- 
sion of labor." What is large scale industry? What are the 
advantages and the disadvantages of large scale industry and of 
division of labor? 

9. Define the term "corporation." In what respects is a 
corporation better than a partnership? If a corporation has legal 
privileges, to how much public supervision and control should it 
be subjected? What kinds of private corporations have the largest 
number of legal privileges, and why? When does such an organi- 
zation become a public service corporation? What is a common 
carrier? 

10. In what businesses do we have public ownership or manage- 
ment? Give reasons why our governments own and manage those 
public utilities. Tell all that you can about government owner- 
ship or management, so far as it affects us in this community, If 
there is a publicly owned water system, give its history, explain 
where the water is obtained, give location of reservoirs, tell about 
rates, and give some idea of its revenues, profits, and successes. 
Give similar information for any other publicly owned utility of 
this community. 

11. Is there a state agricultural department in this state? 
Have we a county farm bureau? Has an agricultural experiment 
station been established in this part of this state? How long since 
a demonstration train has passed through this community? Has a 
farmer's institute ever been held in this county? Explain what 
work has been done, or is being done, for the farmer by the govern- 
ment or by any of the state or local agricultural agencies. 

12. Why must government and the public protect business? 
To what extent should there be laws to define our business relations 
with other people, including the rights and obligations of parties 
to a contract or any transaction? Under what conditions is it 
necessary or desirable that business should be promoted? What 
businesses should be prohibited? 

13. What is a protective tariff? Why have we had protective 
tariffs most of the time since we have had a national government? 
When a protective tariff is unnecessarily high, who pays the 

bills? 

14. What is a trust? Why should the most important anti- 
trust laws be made by the states? Should a monopoly or a semi- 
monopoly be allowed to charge more in one part of a state, where 
there is no competition, than in other parts of the same state where 
competition exists? Give provisions of the Sherman Anti-Trust 



228 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

Law. In what other ways does the national government control 
trusts at the present time? 

15. Show how railways are absolutely necessary to the public 
and therefore should be public service corporations and, if neces- 
sary, monopolies. Explain why railroads should be common car- 
riers and must not overcharge shippers of freight. How did the 
states try to control the railroads through publicity? Give provi- 
sions of the present Interstate Commerce Act. In what ways can 
the Interstate Commerce Commission control railroads that do 
business in more than one state? 






CHAPTER XIV 
THE WORKER AND SOCIETY 

1. Woman and child workers 

a. Child labor 

b. Women who work 

c. Protection of women workers 

2. Employee, employer, and the public 

a. The worker as a citizen 

6. Disadvantages of an individual worker in making a 

contract with a modern employer 
c. Capital and labor 

(1) Strikes and lockouts 

(2) Industrial arbitration 

(3) Collective bargaining 

(4) Better cooperation between employer and em- 

ployee 

3. Economic rights 

a. The right to work 

b. Unemployment 

c. Protection of the worker against dangers 

d. Accidents and workmen's compensation 

e. The right to a living wage 

/. Protection against economic monopolies 

Woman and Child Workers 

170. Child Labor.— Most of us may not realize how P^J en ' m 
many children work for pay. The number under sixteen 
years of age was formerly about two millions, that is, 
five per cent of all wage-earners. Most of these boys and 
girls, however, were fourteen or fifteen years of age. 
The largest number of child workers was then in cotton 
mills of the south Atlantic states. Nowadays, there 
are probably quite as many engaged in street industries 

and in canneries. 

229 



230 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Physical, 
economic, 
and social 
losses due 
to child 
labor. 



State child 
labor laws. 



Number 
and occupa- 
tions. 



Reasons for 
low wages 
of women. 



The child that works in a factory is not able to go to 
school; he does not play enough. When he grows up, 
he is not only ignorant, but he is less developed physically 
than he would have been without this factory life. If the 
child has displaced some older and more experienced 
employee, he has probably increased unemployment. 
Even if he has not forced some older person out of 
work, his competition with that older worker has 
lowered wages for some adult whose standard of living 
was already very low. 

Most of our states have now passed child labor laws 
prohibiting work during school time for children under 
fourteen years of age. Young persons under eighteen 
are not allowed to work more than eight hours a day or 
at night. Unfortunately these laws are not enforced 
very carefully. 

171. Women Who Work. — Before the Civil War com- 
paratively few women were engaged in industry. At 
present there are nearly ten million women workers in 
America. In the olden days domestic service was about 
the only vocation open to women. It is still the leading 
occupation for them. Many are employed in factories 
at work requiring skill, tact, and deftness (§138). The 
number in the teaching profession is very large. Much 
office work is done by women assistants, and in some 
occupations, such as the operation of telephone boards, 
men are almost never found. 

Women workers are usually more numerous than the 
situations open to them. They have not been organized, 
nor until 1920 did most of them have the ballot with 
which to protect their rights. In consequence their pay 
has ordinarily been low, and they have often been forced 
to toil in factories that were unsanitary. 

172. Protection of Women Workers. — The old factory 
was dark, dirty, and noisy. No seats were provided for 



WOMAN AND CHILD WORKERS 



231 



employees and there were no rest rooms. The women gourmand 
were forced to toil nine, ten, possibly twelve hours a day, regulations, 
and sometimes seven days a week. Half of our states 
now have laws limiting the hours of women workers, 
possibly to eight hours a day, but more frequently to 
nine or ten. In most factories, seats and rest rooms are 
now provided and there are other arrangements for the 
comfort of employees. 




Women in a Factory 

Almost one third of the states have passed minimum ^^ 
wage laws for women. Under these laws no employer is and 
allowed to pay a woman employee less than a certain 
amount per week. Apprentices may be kept at a smaller 
wage for a short period. There are some difficulties 
in the plan of the minimum wage. Even if a girl needs 
fifteen dollars a week in order to live properly, she would 
prefer ten or twelve to nothing; and, if her services are 



232 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



What 
society 
must do for 
the worker. 



Dangers 
from unfair 
treatment 
to workers. 



Inability 
to bargain 
on equal 
terms. 



Why the 
worker is 
at a dis- 
advantage. 



worth only ten or twelve dollars to her employer, he will 
certainly not pay her fifteen if he can avoid doing so. 
The public must try to give every girl such an education 
that she is capable of earning at least a minimum wage. 

Employee, Employer, and the Public 

173. The Worker as a Citizen. — The employee is a 
citizen as well as a seller of labor. He is an employee 
because he has labor to sell and because he has made 
with some employer an agreement by which he exchanges 
his services for wages. Society is interested not only to 
have him do as much useful work as possible, but also to 
see that he is in good health, and is a happy, contented, 
and useful citizen. If he works under conditions which are 
more or less inhumane, he can not be such a citizen. If 
his pay is so low that he can not buy the necessities of life 
for himself and his family, he will become physically weak, 
and his children may become public charges. Moreover, 
instead of being a good and useful member of society, he 
will be discontented and ready to do anything that he 
can to oppose the government or to injure society. A 
man with a grievance, real or imagined, is good material 
out of which to make a revolutionist or an anarchist. 

174. Disadvantages of an Individual Worker in 
Making a Contract with a Modern Employer. — In order 
that a worker shall make with his employer the kind of 
contract that he ought to make, he should be able to 
bargain with his employer on nearly equal terms. In the 
past, there has been no such equality. Ordinarily each 
individual has made a separate contract with his employer. 
This has not been fair if each master has employed many 
hundreds or thousands of workers. 

The laborer has for sale a perishable commodity, his 
labor; he can not make up to-morrow the work that 
he might have done to-day. Moreover, his labor can 



EMPLOYEE, EMPLOYER, AND THE PUBLIC 233 

not really be separated from him. Since there are usually 
more laborers than jobs, he can not afford to lose a position 
or an opportunity. The situation is more necessary to 
him than his work to the employer. Since he has little 
money laid by for a time of need, he has probably taken the 
first work that opportunity offered, and usually on the 
employer's own terms. Because he has so little reserve 
cash, the longer he waits, the less he is able to demand. 
He does not dare to bargain, therefore, and hold out for 
better terms, but takes what the employer offers him. 
Therefore he must toil under unfavorable conditions 
rather than not work at all. 

175. Capital and Labor— Strikes and Lockouts.— A Definition^ 
strike is a concerted temporary withdrawal from work of of strikes. 
a group of employees for the purpose -of securing more 
favorable contracts with their employers. Formerly, 
strikes were chiefly for the purpose of obtaining higher 
wages. Nowadays, strikes are used almost as much to 
gain recognition of the union in order that workers may 
no longer be at a disadvantage in making contracts. 

We sometimes get the impression that most workers are ^ xt ^ t ( J nd 
out on strike a large part of each year. On the average, strikes. 
only one worker in four is involved in a strike in a period 
of twenty-five years. With all their disadvantages — and 
these are very serious, especially in connection with public 
utilities — strikes have undoubtedly raised wages, not 
only for the strikers, but for workers in similar occupa- 
tions. The possibility of a strike frequently has induced 
an employer to pay a higher wage than he otherwise 
would have granted. 

When an employer closes his doors in order to bring ^ k ^*f 
the workers to his own terms, he is resorting to what is cotts. 
called a lockout. When a group of buyers refuses to pur- 
chase goods from some seller, we have a boycott. Lock- 
outs and boycotts, like strikes, are methods of industrial 



234 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 






Objections 
to industrial 
warfare. 



Forms and 
successes of 
industrial 
arbitration. 



Nature of 

collective 

bargaining. 



warfare used by one party to gain advantage over 
another. 

176. Industrial Arbitration. — Because strikes and lock- 
outs mean loss of time and delayed production, because 
they lead to bitter feeling and give excuse for a certain 
amount of lawlessness, the public is trying to find less 
dangerous remedies for the evils that they are supposed 
to meet. 

Industrial arbitration is the name given to methods of 
securing industrial peace. Most states have some form 
either of conciliation . or arbitration. 1 In industrial dis- 
putes few states compel either party to submit the question 
to a state board or committee. In only eight states does 
the law insist that, if a dispute is voluntarily submitted to 
a board, the report of the board must be accepted by both 
parties. In one or two older states, the work of the 
boards of industrial arbitration has been rather satis- 
factory, but in most of them little has been accomplished. 

177. Collective Bargaining. — When workers act as 
a body in making their agreements or contracts with 
their employer, there is collective bargaining. We have 
a similar action when an official of a labor union repre- 
sents the workers and makes with the employer an 
agreement which binds the men of the union. As we 
noticed above, the recognition of the union, or collective 
bargaining, has been one of the chief causes of strikes in 
recent years. 

i"When a third party in the form of a private or a public board 
brings employers and employees together with a view to settling some 
dispute between the two parties, the process is called conciliation or 
mediation. Arbitration implies an authoritative board or court which 
is empowered to make an investigation and to settle the dispute. The 
suggestions or findings of a board of conciliation may or may not be 
accepted ; the mandates of a board of arbitration are binding upon both 
parties. Arbitration may be voluntary or compulsory, and primary or 
secondary. Arbitration is voluntary when both employers and em- 
ployees agree beforehand to accept the awards of the board. Arbitra- 
tion is compulsory when the government compels the interested parties 
to submit the case to the board and to abide by its findings." 
Carlton, History and Problems of Organized Labor, 232. 



EMPLOYEE, EMPLOYER, AND THE PUBLIC 235 

When a single employee deals individually with an P* obl j em J to 
employer of many men, he is at a disadvantage (§174). dangers to 
If it is desirable that the employers should be organized duti^tobe 
to protect themselves, as most of them are at present, performed, 
it is equally desirable that the workers also should 
organize. An employer can not force organized men to 
bid against each other. If the unions are stronger than 
the employers, it is the employer who needs to be pro- 
tected from his men. When a group of employees can 
compel the master to employ only union workers and to 
consult the bosses of the labor group before any employee 
is " hired or fired," we have the closed shop. If the 
closed shop uses its power arbitrarily, as did many of the 
old time employers, it is as great a menace to labor and 
to the successful development of American business as 
was the arbitrary domination of the worker by the master. 
It is the duty of the public to see that each side gets a 
square deal and that one does not take advantage of the 
other. 

178. Better Cooperation between Employer and Necess^y 
Employee. — As we have seen, 1 the work of production is cooperation 

. t t , i j • e t-*- • m business. 

carried on by the cooperation ol many persons. It is 
necessary for the employer and employee to work together ; 
and both must cooperate with the public that buys the 
goods and with the men who furnish the land, the 
materials, and possibly other commodities needed in 
the general work. 

The employer who is short-sighted tries to take ^ h ° e ss e e ^_ to 
advantage of his employees, that is, to exploit them, pioyerin 
He may try to speed up the work to a rate greater than exploitation, 
an ordinary employee is physically able to stand for any 
length of time. Possibly he underpays them or he makes 
them work with antiquated and dangerous machinery at 
risk of life and limb. However the employer tries to 

i See especially §§26-29. 



236 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



How a poor- 
spirited 
employee 
injures 
himself. 



The saving 
value of co- 
operation. 



take advantage of his men, the chances are that, in 
attempting to get too much, he will lose their respect, 
their support, and their interest. 

On the other hand, the employee who shirks or is 
careless, who willfully tries to injure the employer or to 
destroy his materials, in the long run injures himself and 
his fellow workers rather than the man who pays him 
wages. His carelessness may lead to accident, and the 
accident may injure a companion far more than it does 
the employer. The man who shirks by reducing output 
inevitably lowers wages, because the employer can not 
and will not pay his men more than their work is worth 
to him. A man who is sitting on a branch of a tree 
ought not to saw it off between himself and the trunk. 

Employer and employee should realize, therefore, that, 
if they work together, each will help himself as well 
as the other. This is a difficult lesson for employees to 
learn, just as it has been hard for some teachers and 
many pupils. Even to-day, in some classrooms, teacher 
and pupil seem to think that if one does things which 
the other doesn't like, he is doing something excellent 
for himself. Teacher and pupil, employer and employee 
must learn to avoid friction, not only to cooperate, but 
to pull together with a will. 



The need 
and the 
problem of 
the willing 
worker. 



Economic Rights 

179. The Right to Work. — Except the rights to live 
and be free, no individual right is greater than the right 
to work. In fact, it is impossible for ninety-nine adults 
out of a hundred to live unless they work. No society is 
more unjust than that which denies to a willing worker 
the right to earn a living for himself and for those 
dependent upon him. It is not always possible for a man 
to engage in the occupation that he prefers. He may not 
have the education or the personal qualities which make 









ECONOMIC RIGHTS 



237 



him a good worker in that business. Society, however, 
owes him a training such that, if he has the ability, he 
can become a producer in that line. 

All men have a right to work in clean and healthful Conditions 

under which 

surroundings, and for reasonable hours. 1 They should men should 
have one day a week of leisure, preferably Sunday, not* work. 
Workers are entitled to a decent wage, a wage which will 
at least give them all the necessaries and some of the 
comforts of life. No employer can ask any man to 
expose himself to unnecessary dangers. If the business 
is a particularly dangerous one, the employee has a right 
to such protection as the human mind can invent. 




Municipal Employment Bureau, Seattle, Washington 
180. Unemployment. — In the modern world at all Extent ° f 

r J unemploy- 

times a large number of men and women can not work, ment, 
do not work, or will not work. Figures seem to show that 
one worker in forty is idle most of the time, and that at 

1 Investigations have proved that in most occupations a nine hour 
day, with a six day week, is more productive (that is, the total 'product 
is greater) than is a ten or eleven hour day. 



238 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Personal 
causes of 
unemploy- 
ment. 



Industrial 
causes. 



Government 
employment 
bureaus. 



Economic 
value of 
good con- 
ditions. 



What can 
and what 
may not be 
done in 
dangerous 
industries. 



least one in five lacks employment from one to six months 
every year. 

In some cases, failure to secure and keep a job is due to 
the worker's personal characteristics or habits. He may 
be ignorant, careless, or lazy; or he may be unwilling to 
work for any length of time at any particular occupation. 1 

Men may be unemployed because they are engaged in 
seasonal industries and therefore are compelled to remain 
idle part of the time. They may belong to a class of 
workers who are more numerous than are needed in that 
locality. 

The national government has had plans for reducing 
unemployment, but has not taken effective action. In 
twenty-three states, state or municipal employment 
bureaus have been provided. A sharp contrast exists 
between the lack of government employment agencies in 
America and the numerous local governmental em- 
ployment bureaus in most European countries. 

181. Protection of the Worker against Dangers. — To 
work successfully, one must be in good physical condition. 
When one is sick, work is a hardship; when one is well, it 
should be a pleasure. A laborer who toils in a dark, 
damp, unsanitary place never can do his best. A person 
who works in a bright, sunny room at an interesting task 
does not need to be driven, nor does he watch the clock. 
The employer who studies the needs of his men usually finds 
that it pays to have conditions as satisfactory as possible. 

It is only a century since the English poet, Thomas 
Hood, wrote, "Oh God! that bread should be so dear, 
and flesh and blood so cheap!" A score of years ago 
this cry might have applied to America, because the 
public did not demand protection of life and limb in 
industry. Many businesses are dangerous. There is no 
known method by which railroading can be made safe 

1 We call such a person a casual laborer. 






ECONOMIC RIGHTS 



239 



for all workers at all times. Mining exacts a heavy toll 
from those who toil in the depths of the earth. The best 
that can be done for these men is to use safety appliances, 
regardless of expense. It is interesting to note that the 
law for safety coupling devices on railways did not go 
into effect until many years after it was passed. A time 
limit for adopting it was set, but was extended because it 




Protected Machinery 



Photo by Brown Bros. 



was expensive to equip cars with the new life-saving 
apparatus, and railroad managers could not agree upon a 
single device. In exceptionally dangerous industries 
employers must not expose men to avoidable risks; they 
can not protect the worker, of course, from his own 
carelessness. An accident due to fatigue, however, is 
really preventable. Hours should be shortened if pro- 
longed action causes exhaustion and exposes to accident 
a worker or the people under his direction. 



240 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Precautions 
in factories. 



Numbers of 
killed and 
injured. 



Practical 
operation of 
employers' 
liability. 



Laws re- 
garding 
workmen's 
compensa- 
tion. 



Within the ordinary factories and for ordinary workers 
much has been done in the past ten or fifteen years to 
protect human life. Fire escapes are usually required 
and large factories or high office buildings must be partly 
fireproof. Where machinery can be guarded, safety 
devices are provided. The workers are compelled to take 
suitable precautions. They must not wear clothing that 
will be caught easily in moving parts of machinery. 
In order to put a premium on the adoption of these safety 
appliances, the employers are compelled to pay any one 
of their workers who is injured. 

182. Accidents and Workmen's Compensation. — Tens 
of thousands of American workers are killed every year 
while they are at work. The exact number we do not 
know because many states do not keep accurate records 
of losses of that kind. At least a half million employees 
are injured seriously every year. Probably three or 
four millions are out of work for a day or more because of 
minor accidents. 

Until recent years the whole burden of the loss fell 
upon the workman and his family. If he was injured 
seriously, he lost a great deal of time. If he was killed, 
his family was permanently deprived of his earnings. 
All that a worker or his family could do was to sue the 
employer in the hope of getting damages. 1 As it fre- 
quently took years to decide a case and the worker could 
not afford to continue a lawsuit so long, usually a small 
sum of money was accepted outside of court as full 
compensation for the injury received. 

Within recent years practically all states have adopted 
laws for what is called workmen's compensation. When a 
worker is injured, his employer immediately reports the 
fact to a state board. The worker then applies for com- 
pensation. The board investigates, finds out how serious 

i It was possible for an injured employee to sue because, legally, the 
employer was liable for damages because of accident in his employ. 



ECONOMIC RIGHTS 241 

the injury was, whether the worker is partially or com- 
pletely disabled, and for how long a time he has been 
unable to work. It then fixes a payment per week which 
he shall receive during the period of disability. In case 
of death, an amount equal to three years' wages is paid to 
his widow. Payments are made by the employer, but he 
usually counts them as part of his costs and charges 
higher prices for the goods that he sells. 1 

183. The Right to a Living Wage.— If a worker must The wage 

° ii problem of 

make his choice between large wages and pleasant work- the ordinary 
ing conditions, the majority will choose the wage. The wc 
reason for this is simple. In all history and even in 
America to-day, the majority of the people are not able 
to earn large sums. Many of them do not receive enough 
for the necessities of life; a much larger number have a 
wage that covers little besides their actual necessities 
(§50). It is probably true that a fair percentage of the 
people of Europe never have enough to eat. Unfor- 
tunately, even in America, at least ten per cent are hungry 
because of lack of proper nourishing food. 

Failure to earn a decent wage may be due to several Low wages 
causes, two of which are particularly important. Ine of ability, 
first of these is a lack of ability. Abraham Lincoln said 
that God must be very fond of the common people, because 
he had made so many of them. Some of these people 
undoubtedly are below par physically and do not have 
the mental capacity to earn a large amount. Their work 
is not worth much to any employer, because their intelli- 
gence is not high or their health is not good. If these 
people are willing to take work that they are capable of 
doing, there is no reason why they could not be trained 
to do that work fairly well. 

Members of a second group have plenty of ability but 

i In most states, the employers are compelled to insure against acci- 
dent. The payment is then made by the insurance company, which 
may be a bureau of the state government. 



242 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Lack of 
training 
and educa- 
tion as 
eause of 
low wages 



How com- 
bination 
affected 
prices. 
Need of pro 
tection of 
the buyer. 



"Putting 
the screws" 
on the 
producers 
of raw 
materials. 



Monopoly 
control of 
labor 
supply. 



lack proper training. They are intelligent, but unedu- 
cated. Many people are doing work much below their 
capacity either because they can not make good use of 
their training or because they are not well prepared. 
In some cases this is their own fault, in other cases it is 
the fault of the school system. 1 The old phrase, "the 
best is none too good," is true of education as well as of 
other things. We can justly criticise a school system 
that does not hold the normal boy and girl and train 
them to earn a living wage. 

184. Protection against Economic Monopolies. — A 
large scale producer (§160) can manufacture goods cheaply, 
but it does not follow that he will sell them at a cor- 
respondingly low price to those who wish to buy. Before 
corporations formed combinations, they competed with 
one another and therefore kept prices low. After trusts 
were organized, there was comparatively little competi- 
tion and combinations were able to raise prices. In some 
instances a great corporation or trust became a monopoly 
(§159). 

A huge corporation, especially if it is a monopoly, not 
only can overcharge the public, but it can also buy 
its raw materials at a particularly low price. If these 
materials are produced by many persons, the large 
manufacturing concern will persuade them to compete 
with one another, or it will pay a low price to those that 
will sell and refuse to purchase from the others. 

A trust that monopolizes a particular trade will be able 
to secure workers at a much lower wage than a number of 
smaller corporations would be compelled to pay. The 
reason for this is obvious. If a skilled worker can find 
employment only with this one trust, he will be obliged 

1 Because they did not get what they wanted, or had trouble with 
their teachers, some of those boys and girls dropped out years before 
they should. In many cases the school courses have not given the 
kind of training which a boy or girl has a right to expect and demand. 









ECONOMIC RIGHTS 



243 



to take what they will give. If he might work for any 
one of a hundred companies, he would have a better 
chance of getting good pay. 

The government should make and enforce laws for the Some people 
protection of the public, the producer of raw materials, be pro- 
and the worker against any monopoly or against any tecte " 
corporation or group of persons who underpay their men, 
take unfair advantage of the people from whom they buy 
materials, or overcharge the public. 

References 

1. Physiological aspects of child labor. Mangold, Problems of 
Child Welfare, 310-318. 

2. Industrial opportunities of women. Neaeing, Woman and 
Social Progress, 217-239. 

3. Women in industry. Townb, Social Problems, 82-90. 

4. Legislation for women. Towne, Social Problems, 90-93. 

5. The coal miners' strike — 1919. Current History, 11 Pt. I 
(1919), 420-427. 

6. Unemployment. Towne, Social Problems, 140-150. 

7. A fair wage. Tufts, The Real Business of Living, 263 _ 272. 

8. Industrial accidents. Rubinow, Social Insurance, 49-68. 

9. The gospel of safety. Tarbell, New Ideals in Business, 
50-76. 

10. Workmen's compensation for disability or death. Com- 
mons and Andrews, Principles of Labor Legislation, 375-378. 

*Towne, Social Problems. 

*Carlton, History and Problems of Organized Labor. 
*Commons and Andrews, Principles of Labor Legislation. 
*Rubinow, Social Insurance. 

* Adams and Sumner, Labor Problems. 

* Friedman (ed), American Problems of Reconstruction. 

*Ely, Property and Contract, especially 51-69, 165-199, 484-516, 
651-744. 

Questions 

1. Give some idea of the number of American children who 
work for pay. What does a child lose if he works all day? What 
is the effect of child labor on wages and unemployment? What 

*Primarily for teachers. 



244 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

child labor laws have been passed in this state, and to what extent 
are they enforced? 

2. How many wage-earning women are now engaged in industry 
in the United States? Name the leading occupations in which 
they are found. Give reasons. Of what advantage is the ballot to 
the woman who works? 

3. Compare the old hours of women workers with those in force 
at the present time, especially in this state. What is a minimum 
wage law? Is there a minimum wage in this state? If so, what is 
the least (a) that can be paid to regular workers; or (6) that can 
be paid to apprentices? What dangers exist in the minimum wage? 

4. Why must we not think of the employee simply as a seller 
of labor? Under what conditions only can a laborer be a good 
citizen? Name three ways in which the individual worker is at a 
disadvantage if his employer is one of an organized group or a man 
who employs a large number of men. 

5. Give a definition of the term "strike." What was the pur- 
pose of strikes formerly? What is it at present? Are strikes 
common now? Why? What has been the influence of strikes upon 
wages? What is a lockout? What is a boycott? 

6. What is meant by industrial arbitration? If a dispute is 
voluntarily submitted to arbitration, should the report of the arbi- 
tration board be accepted? If so, why? 

7. What is meant by collective bargaining? What are the 
advantages of collective bargaining? If there is no collective bar- 
gaining, what is the danger where (a) the employer dominates the 
situation, or (6) the labor group has the closed shop and uses its 
power arbitrarily? 

8. In what ways may a short-sighted employer exploit his 
workers? Explain how the employee who shirks, is careless, or 
destroys his employer's materials injures the workers rather than 
the capitalist. 

9. Why is the right to work one of the greatest of all rights? 
Why does society owe a man the opportunity to work? Name some 
of the general rights of workers. 

10. Under what conditions is the best work done? Name three 
dangerous industries, and show why they are dangerous. What has 
been done to reduce the number of injuries in these industries? 
Give some idea of the number of persons injured annually while 
at work. What is meant by workmen's compensation? Give pro- 
visions of the law of this state, and explain how it is used. 

11. Why have we the problem of a living wage, even in this 



ECONOMIC RIGHTS 245 

country? Explain how lack of ability is a cause of the problem. 
What can be done to remedy the lack of training which is another 
cause of low wages? 

12. Why have combinations raised prices? Show how a huge 
corporation or combination has an advantage in securing raw 
materials. What advantage has such an organization over work- 
ers unless workers are especially well organized? In your opinion 
what should the public do about the trusts? 



PART V 

THE CITIZEN IN RELATION TO GOVERNMENT 



CHAPTER XV 

CIVIL LIBERTY IN GENERAL 

Individual relationships 

1. Ordinary civil rights 

a. Need of protection against individuals 

b. Need of protection against government 

c. Personal freedom and freedom of action 

d. Freedom of speech and of the press 

e. Religious liberty 

r . Civil suits and criminal cases 
g. Open and fair trials 
h. The jury system 

2. Some civic obligations 

a. Connection between rights and duties 

b. Obedience as a civic responsibility 

c. Military service and jury duty 

185. Individual Relationships.— The individual mem- Types of 
ber of society is not only a citizen of his nation, but also g^ at g ion " 
a member of a large number of other groups. As we have 
already noticed, some of these groups are social, some 
economic, and some political. 

Civil liberty is citizen liberty, that is, it is the liberty i nte rrela> 
of the individual citizen. The term liberty is usually ^T! of ,, 
limited to our rights, but it might also include our duties, duties. 
As explained in Part I, we have rights in our relations with 
other people, and with the rights we have duties. 

Ordinary Civil Rights 

186. Need of Protection against Individuals. — In a Persons 
complex society such as that in which we live to-day, to fulfill 1 * 
some members insist upon their rights, but absolutely obll s atlons - 
refuse to perform their duties. If a person of this type 

249 



250 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



How one 
person may 
take ad- 
vantage of 
another. 



Bills of 
rights in 
English 
and colonial 

history- 



makes a contract with another, he always tries to see 
how much he can get for himself and how little he can do 
for the other party with whom the agreement was made. 
If he is building a house, he will substitute poor materials 
for the better which he is supposed to use. If he is 
employed by another man, he will work as little and as 
poorly as possible. In fact, he may even go so far as to 
secure goods and refuse to pay for them. It is necessary 
for any group, community, or society to protect its 
members against such individuals. 

It is not always possible for a government or a society 
to make general laws which do safeguard our interests 
against those who try to take advantage of us. However, 
we can refuse to pay for work that is very badly done. 
If a person sells us a piece of property and the property 
is not what it is represented to be, we may possibly get 
our money back or punish the person who cheated us. 
(§191). We need protection against arbitrary govern- 
ment as well as against individuals. 

187. Need of Protection against Government. — In the 
past, few governments were democratic. Consequently, 
they were more interested in helping the class to which the 
rulers belonged than in protecting the rights of others. 
The history of the English people for several centuries 
was to a large extent the story of a struggle, by those who 
did not have control of the government, against the 
arbitrary rule of the king and his advisers. Magna Carta, 
the increasing powers of Parliament, the Petition of Right, 
and the Bill of Rights limited the powers of the English 
monarch and gained rights for the citizen of England 
before 1700. In the American colonies during the seven- 
teenth and eighteenth centuries, the colonial assemblies 
strove constantly to limit the authority of the royal 

governors. 

When we adopted our national Constitution and framed 






ORDINARY CIVIL RIGHTS 



251 



our state constitutions, we adopted bills of rights which American 
protect citizens against the aggressions of the rulers rights. 
whom we select for our governments. Most of these 
provisions were copied from the old English laws, but 
some have been added which aim to keep our officials 
from interfering with other liberties of the people. 

188. Personal Freedom and Freedom of Action. — Freedom in 
Aside from the right to life itself, the greatest right which and^the 
anyone can enjoy is personal freedom (§157). In the present - 




Copyright, Underwood and Underwood 

Crowd Protesting against Food Profiteering 

twentieth century we take it for granted that a person 
shall be free, but until a few years ago many Europeans 
did not. Even in colonial America, we heard about white 
bondmen, and in Europe the partially bound man was 
the rule two or three centuries ago. Some of these men, 
in fact, were bound to the soil and had so little freedom 
that they were called serfs — and a serf was little better 
than a slave. 



252 



TTE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Choice of 
home and 
occupation. 



What is 
meant by 
freedom 
of speech. 



Freedom 
the press 



of 



Just as the right to life is of little value without health, 
so personal liberty is of practically no value unless we 
can move from place to place. If we live in a beautiful 
city, we do not care particularly for such opportunities; 
but if we are living in a dirty or vile district, we should be 
glad of a chance to move into pleasanter surroundings. 
Almost as important as the right to move about is the 
right to decide what work we shall do. Although it is 
impossible for any man who is uneducated to undertake 
work which requires education, or for a person who is 
clumsy to follow an occupation which requires skill; 
nevertheless, every man ought to have freedom in select- 
ing his life work. If he is to be a free man, he should 
have the right to decide where he will live, what he will 
do, how he will spend his leisure time, and to what 
hobbies and amusements he will give his special attention. 
By right he ought to have leisure. 

189. Freedom of Speech and of the Press.— It would 
be a misnomer to call our country "the land of the free" 
if a person were liable to arrest and imprisonment for 
speaking his thoughts. 1 Certainly no liberty is possible 
unless freedom of speech is granted. There is no greater 
difference between democratic America and the recently 
abolished monarchies of central and eastern Europe than 
this freedom to speak one's opinion on all subjects, 
including the right to criticise a government and its 

policies. 

Freedom of the press is almost as necessary for a self- 
governing people. 2 If our newspapers can not give the 

!By "act of Congress the right of freedom of speech does not extend 
to anarchistic utterances, or speeches or writings aimed against order, 
the eltaSed government, and exciting to assassination or crime. - 
Stimson, Popular Law Making, 301-302. 

2 In practically all states the constitutions assert that persons who 
seek in speech or in public print, to injure the reputation of others 
shall be fable to punishment State laws specify that ma suit for 
libel tht tmtn may be introduced as evidence and that malicious intent 
on the part of the speaker or writer may be proved. 



ORDINARY CWIL RIGHTS 



253 



facts of anything that takes places in business, society, 
or government without being punished for their audacity, 
we shall soon lose all semblance of real self-government. 1 

190. Religious Liberty, — It is eminently fitting that 
in this country, where religious freedom was permitted 
when religious persecution existed everywhere else in the 
world, our state bills of rights should provide for the fullest 
liberty in religious matters. No state allows its govern- 
ment to dictate to any one what church he shall attend or 
compels him to contribute to the support of any church, 
the establishment of state churches being everywhere 
forbidden. No person is disqualified from holding office 
or exercising civil rights because of his religious views, 
although a few of the older states make belief in the 
Diety a prerequisite for holding certain offices. Never- 
theless, socially dangerous practices such as polygamy 
are punished as crime, even when permitted or sanctioned 
by a religious sect. 

191. Civil Suits and Criminal Cases. — Our rights are 
protected in the courts. If we believe that we have been 
injured by anyone in ordinary dealings, we bring against 
him a suit to secure damages. A person who has built his 
fence upon our property and refuses to move it may be 
forced to do so. Those who break their contracts can be 
compelled to pay damages. These cases are known as civil 
suits. They can be brought only in case our govern- 
ments have passed laws which cover offenses of that 
character. The suits are tried in the courts. The person 
who brings the suit is called the plaintiff and the person 
against whom the suit is brought is named defendant. 

1 In past centuries only a few newspapers were published ; they were 
either controlled or severely censored by the government. In Europe 
to-day censors regulate very definitely what shall and what shall not 
be published by the press. In America the government does not inter- 
fere with the freedom of the press or suppress news which would be 
unpleasant to public officials; on the contrary we tend to err on the 
other side. 



Extent 
and limits 
of religious 
freedom. 



Nature of 
and parties 
to civil 
suits. 



254 



THE PRACTICE fcF CITIZENSHIP 



Public 
nature of 
criminal 



cases. 



Need of 
open and 
fair trials. 






Safeguards 
for persons 
arrested 
and brought 
to trial. 



Civil suits are not brought against those who do us 
serious or malicious injury. When a person steals from 
us or tries to burn our property or does us physical harm, 
action is taken against him by the public. Such action 
does not constitute a civil case because the injury is of a 
criminal nature. Criminal charges are brought by public 
officials, since the criminal act injures society as well as 
the individual. The government wishes to protect all of 
its citizens and is anxious to see that the criminal is 
punished. If the offense is a comparatively minor one, 
it is called a misdemeanor; if a serious one, a felony. 
A person guilty of felony is called a criminal. There are 
many laws defining crime and for each offense a suitable 
punishment is provided. 

192. Open and Fair Trials.— Boys and girls of this 
school hope they will never know anything about crime 
from personal experience. However little we personally 
may be associated with criminals, we still agree that, if a 
person is accused of an offense, he ought to be considered 
innocent until he is proved guilty, and he ought to have 
every opportunity to prove his innocence. In America 
nowadays, we have open and fair trials, but a century 
ago in continental Europe, it was customary to consider a 
man guilty until his innocence had been proved. In order 
to prove the guilt of an accused man, public officers 
tortured him and even the witnesses called to testify in 

his behalf. 1 

In America we insist that a person shall not be arrested 
except upon a warrant, unless he is caught in the act or 
the evidence against him is overwhelming. If he is 
accused of a misdemeanor or of a minor felony, he has 
the right to give bail. If bail can be furnished by him 
or his friends, he is then allowed to remain at liberty until 
the case is called against him; he is not held in jail awaiting 

i See Ashley, Modern European Civilization, §§ 95-96. 



ORDINARY CIVIL RIGHTS 



255 



trial. 1 In order to insure fair trials, American law pro- 
vides that an accused person shall be tried by a jury of 
his fellow citizens and not by a judge who may know a 
great deal of law, but who may be little influenced by 
human emotions. 




A Jury Trial 

193. The Jury System. — The ordinary jury 2 is called Purpose of 
the petit jury and consists of twelve citizens. No one is 
accepted for jury duty if he is related to the accused 
person or directly interested in the case in any way. 

1 The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus compels a court to investi- 
gate the charge and determine whether the prisoner should be held for 
trial. 

2 A grand jury is composed "of from twelve to twenty-three persons. 
It holds secret sessions either for the purpose of investigating the causes 
of crimes which have been committed, bringing indictments against 
those whom it believes guilty ; or for the purpose of investigating the con- 
dition of departments of government and their expenditures of money. 

A police jury usually consists of six men. It is used to determine the 
guilt or innocence of persons accused of committing misdemeanors. 



256 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Use of the 
jury system. 



Advantages 
and dis- 
advantages 
of jury 
trial. 



The two 
sides of 
relation- 
ships. 



Witnesses are examined in order that the jury may learn 
all possible facts regarding the crime and the persons who 
are supposed to be connected with it. 

The jury system is in use throughout the United States. 
In criminal cases there is always a jury unless the accused 
wishes to be tried in some other way. Many civil cases 
are decided by judges in order to avoid the trouble of 
getting a jury. 

A juror is more likely to be kind-hearted and therefore 
more lenient than a judge. Jurors are supposed to use 
common sense and to understand the circumstances under 
which the accused person might have been guilty of per- 
forming the deed of which he is accused. Jurors are 
often unduly influenced by the eloquence of an able 
lawyer, and they, in consequence, fail to convict men who 
undoubtedly are guilty. This may easily happen since 
a unanimous verdict is necessary before a person may be 
punished for a serious crime. 

Some 'Civic Obligations 

194. Connection between Rights and Duties.— A 

citizen's rights grow out of his associations with his 
fellows, and his obligations are no less an outgrowth of 
the same relationships. If his civic relations with other 
persons are simple, as in the case of a trapper who twice 
a year trades pelts for food and ammunition, the civic 
rights which he uses are comparatively few and his obli- 
gations also are limited. If he is an unmarried employee 
living away from home, both his rights and his duties 
are fewer than those of a married business man. For 
the same reason, a man of affairs, who is the head 
of a family and a person of importance in his church 
and community, has numerous and heavy personal and 
civic obligations that correspond with his numerous and 
important rights. 



SOME CIVIL OBLIGATIONS 257 

195. Obedience as a Civic Responsibility. — The first Need of 

knowledge 

duty of a good citizen, like the chief duty of a good regarding 
solider, is to obey. The first obligation which rests 
upon a member of society is therefore to know what obli- 
gations he has; for, if he is ignorant of his duty, he 
undoubtedly will fail to do at least part of it. 

Like a soldier, the little child must obey practically Need of un- 

...... questioned 

without question. In some instances it is impossible to obedience, 
explain to him the reason for an action; he must simply 
be asked, and compelled, to do as he is told. Most 
children will obey reasonable requests without complaint, 
just as most citizens will obey just laws without protest. 

In many instances the ordinary citizen can not fulfill Obedience 

. to higher 

his whole duty if he simply obeys orders ; he must use laws and to 
his own knowledge and judgment. He may be law- 
abiding by habit; but may not have developed any ideals 
either of good conduct or true obedience. If he knows 
how to obey only when he is told to do or not to do 
something, he will never obey in any real sense. He is 
not obeying if the best that he does is not to break laws, 
whether those laws are made by men or are natural laws. 
Real obedience means that he must do the things 
demanded by high personal standards and by high civic 
ideals. He must have respect for others and regard for 
the property of others. There must be consideration for 
social welfare rather than regard for his own selfish 
interests. To obey in spirit as well as in letter, one must 
be an honest, intelligent citizen; otherwise one fails in 
the most fundamental duty of all, patriotism. 

196. Military Service and Jury Duty. — There was a Importance 

. ..... of military 

time when the most important single duty which a citizen service in 
could render to society was that of military service, for e pas ' 
that was the chief means by which a citizen could protect 
his country. The Roman soldier was expected to serve 
in his army through twenty campaigns as a foot soldier 



258 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Citizen 
aid in the 
administra- 
tion of 
justice. 



or through ten as a horseman. Before the World War 
most European countries forced their young men into a 
standing army for a period of three years and kept them 
in a reserve force for a long time thereafter. In America 
we have never had a large standing army, nor have we 
had military conscription in time of peace. When we 
went into the World War in 1917, we used a selective 
draft (§311) in order that the young men of the nation 




U. 8. Official Photograph 

Infantry Attacking Germans During World War 

might be allowed equal opportunity, without fear or 
favor, to serve their country in the great cause for which 
they were called. What has been necessary in the past 
may again be necessary in the future. Even yet this 
world is not a peaceful sphere. 

In time of peace, justice is more important than pro- 
tection against foreign nations. In all times, men and 
women must expect to do their share not only in obeying 
the laws themselves and in the prevention of unnecessary 
law-breaking by others, but also by giving a square deal 
to persons who are accused of offenses. As we have 



SOME CIVIC OBLIGATIONS 259 

noticed, the jury is in use throughout the United States 
for this purpose. Those who are serving the people in 
any official capacity are excused from jury duty because 
they are aiding the public in its work. Other men and 
sometimes women are, and should be, subject to public 
service, including jury duty. 

References 

1. First steps in liberty. Tufts, The Real Business of Living, 
101-106. 

2. Bills of rights. Beard, American Citizenship, 36-40. 

3. Freedom of speech and thought. Beard, American Citizen- 
ship, 41-44; Hart, Actual Government, 27-29. 

4. Property rights. Beard, American Citizenship, 54-63. 

5. Right to proper treatment in case of arrest. Beard, Amer- 
ican Citizenship, 46-52. 

6. A jury trial. McPheters, Cleaveland, and Jones, Citizen- 
ship Dramatized, 17-41. 

7. The grand jury. Train, The Prisoner at the Bar, 81-101. 

8. Advantages of a jury trial. Train, The Prisoner at the Bar, 
158-177. 

9. The law's delays and defects. Train, The Prisoner at the 
Bar, 102-128. 

10. A hindrance to good citizenship. Bryce, The Hindrances to 
Good Citizenship, 20-42. 

11. The responsibility of citizenship. Kaye, Readings in Civil 
Government, 126-128. 

*Kaye, Readings in Civil Government, 95-128 
*Cleveland, Organized Democracy, 80-129. 
*Hadley, Freedom and Responsibility. 
*Baldwin, Education and Citizenship. 

Questions 

1. What is meant by the statement, "civil liberty is citizen 
liberty?" How can we secure protection against people who refuse 
to fulfill their obligations? Why do all of us want to be as free as 
possible? If society is well organized, do we have more or less 
freedom than we would have otherwise? Explain the difference 
between civil liberty and political liberty. 

♦Primarily for teachers. 



260 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

2. Trace the opposition of the English people to their govern- 
ment, naming the three great documents of the English constitution. 
Why do we need, and why do we have, American bills of rights? 

3. Contrast personal freedom of the present with limitations of 
freedom in the past. Name characteristics of freedom of action at 
the present time. What is freedom of speech, and what are the 
limits of that liberty? Explain the term "freedom of the press.'' 
What is libel? What possible dangers might even now interfere 
with freedom of speech or of the press? Which is worse: yellow 
journalism that knows no restraint, or a newspaper carefully cen- 
sored? Is either necessary? 

4. How recently has freedom of petition been denied (a) in this 
country; (b) in other countries? What is meant by religious free- 
dom? Give some examples of religious persecution. What has 
been done to secure and develop religious liberty during the last 
hundred and fifty years? 

5. Name ways in which one person may take advantage of 
another. What is a civil suit, and what are the names of the parties 
to a civil suit? What is a crime? Why should crime be punished by 
the government rather than by individuals? 

6. Why do our constitutions explain in considerable detail the 
rights of a person accused of crime? Explain the privilege of the 
writ of "habeas corpus." State the difference between the grand 
jury and the petit jury. What is bail? 

7. What is jury trial, and how long have English speaking 
people had it? Why is jury trial so important a part of the Amer- 
ican system of administering justice? What dangers are there now- 
adays that some people will be treated harshly and others, just as 
guilty, be dealt with leniently? Is there any possibility that by 
protecting an accused person too much, we protect the public too 
little? If so, how may we avoid the danger? 

8. If possible, visit a court room during a trial. Learn how 
men and women were secured for possible jury duty. What is a 
peremptory challenge? Describe the methods used in examining 
witnesses and in cross-examination. Did you hear either of the 
attorneys "sum up" the evidence on his side? What is the judge's 
"charge" to the jury? Who renders the "verdict"? 

9. Explain carefully the connection between a right and its 
corresponding duty. (Use the teacher and a pupil in the class as an 
example.) Why is obedience a civic responsibility? Show what 
type of obedience is required most in childhood; in youth; in 
maturity. Explain your answer. 






CHAPTER XVI 

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL LIBERTY 

1. New social rights and obligations 

a. Protection of the child and the home 

b. Public health and sanitation 

c. Educational opportunities 

d. The good citizen and the social criminal 

e. Civic development 

2. Political rights and duties 

a. Political democracy 

b. Suffrage 

(1) History 

(2) At present 

c. Political parties 

(1) Organization 

(2) Bosses and rings 

(3) Work 

d. Primaries and nominating conventions 

e. Elections 

/. Problems of political democracy 

(1) Opportunities and obligations of the voter 

(2) The leaders in a democracy 

New Social Rights and Obligations 

197. Protection of the Child and the Home. — When our Deveiop- 
ancestors declared their independence of Great Britain, social idea e 
they protested against arbitrary government. In their righte** 1 ™ 
constitutions they included bills of rights (§187) which 
protected certain rights of the individual against govern- 
ment officers who might interfere with them. Only in 
recent years have we come to realize that the most 
important rights are those we have in the home, in school, 
and in business. These must be safeguarded by society. 

261 



262 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Agencies 
for child 
protection. 



Problems 
of home 
protection. 



Lack of 
proper 
health pre- 
cautions in 
past ages. 



Unquestionably children form the largest class or 
group whose needs are great and who are unable to protect 
the rights growing out of those needs. No child can pro- 
tect himself from dangers, no child can give himself the 
opportunities which he must have in order to become a well 
developed citizen. He needs the help of parents (§§32-34), 
of the community (§288), and of society (§§8-9). 

As the hope of the nation is in its children, the hope of 
the nation must be in its homes. The majority of the 

American people to- 
day live in cities. 
Most of them do not 
have separate houses, 
and a large percent- 
age live in small 
apartments in rather 
unpleasant tene- 
ments. One of the 
great curses of mod- 
ern civilization is the 
broken home. The 
most common cause 
of broken homes, 
divorce, has already 
been studied ( § § 48— 
47) and need not be 
reconsidered. If the 
rights of the child 
are to be safeguarded 
properly, the Ameri- 
can people must give more attention to problems of the 
home. 

198. Public Health and Sanitation. — For its own pro- 
tection, society is anxious to reduce the amount of sick- 
ness, to conserve public health, and to prolong useful 




Interior of a Shack — A Poor Home 
For a Child 



NEW SOCIAL RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS 263 

human life (§219). A few centuries ago epidemics 
spread rapidly, causing the death of thousands and even 
hundreds of thousands. In those times, cit}^ streets were 
very dirty and there were no proper means of caring for 
sewage and for garbage, which thus became a menace to 
health. Both in town and country, people were accus- 
tomed to use wells, into which filth often drained. 
The good old days of our ancestors were not necessarily 
healthful days, because only the rugged survived. 

Until recent years, little attention has been paid to the Means used 
most serious health problem of all, that of saving the protection 
lives of little children. Even to-day, in some civilized heSth!™ 
countries, one child out of every four or five dies in his 
first year. This excessive mortality has been reduced 
through medical attention, through clean homes and pure 
food, but especially through better supplies of milk. The 
health of adults is also protected by cleaner streets, by 
the removal of garbage and other wastes, and by sewer 
systems. The supplies of water in cities are frequently 
purer than can be found in any country district. Food 
is inspected at the plants where it is prepared or canned, 
and at the market or shops in which it is sold. Dealers 
are no longer allowed to use poisonous or semi-poisonous 
preservatives. In short, the public is waking up to its 
duties and responsibilities in the protection of public 
health (§§220-223). 

199. Educational Opportunities.— In another part of Why edu- 
this book, we have studied a very important subject, demJcm'cy 
school citizenship. A nation that gives its boys and girls 5 ave , 

..,.,., . ° , J & iil > 3 developed 

opportunities to study ana practice school citizenship is a together, 
nation that has gone far in the development of its schools 
and of its own democracy. Centuries ago there was no 
school education for girls. Even boys were not allowed 
to learn the three "R's," unless they were planning to 
be churchmen, to whom a little education was an absolute 



264 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



The kind 
of educa- 
tion that a 
citizen 
needs. 



How good 
citizenship 
may be 
measured. 



necessity. In the modern world education and democracy 
have developed together, because without popular educa- 
cation democracy is impossible. It is scarcely a half 
century since women were first admitted to colleges and 
universities. The majority of students in our high 
schools to-day are girls, and the number of women in 
colleges is only slightly less than that of men. It can thus 
be seen that American schools are training women to take 
a much larger place in the life of society than they did a 

few years ago. 

In a democratic country, education must necessarily be 
free and public. Moreover, it must be compulsory 
through the grammar schools for those who are capable 
of doing work of that kind. It should not be too technical, 
but, on the contrary, it should not be too theoretical. 
School training should be sufficiently practical to prepare 
a boy or girl to earn his or her own living. A trade 
should not be taught, but a youth should be prepared to 
make good progress later in whatever occupation he 
selects. Education must be broad enough to fit the needs 
of every class. Although almost every high school course 
should prepare for college, a high school must be far 
more than a preparatory institution. Every community 
owes to its youth both academic and technical instruction. 

200. The Good Citizen and the Social Criminal.— For 
the normal citizen, rights and obligations must go 
together. Moreover, good citizenship must be measured 
by the emphasis placed upon obligations. The greatest 
citizen of every community is the one who really does 
most for it, not the one for whom most is done. The 
most distinguished presidents are not those who have 
asked most of the people, but those who have done most 
for the good of the nation. 

Only four classes of American citizens are entitled to 
rights without being asked to do much in return. These 



NEW SOCIAL RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS 265 

are the little children, "the lame, the halt, and the blind/' Classes 
the sick, and the aged. Because of their age, physical rij&te ave 
disability, or mental defects, these persons are unable to Rations 
contribute their share to the general welfare. They are 
exempt from most of the obligations which the normal 
citizen must perform. 

One conclusion, and only one, can be drawn from these The social 
statements: those who insist on rights and refuse to cmnmaL 
meet the corresponding obligations fail in a sacred trust. 
They are social criminals. They have taken from loving 
parents, from earnest friends, and from a beneficent 
country all that each could offer. In return they have 
been selfish wasters, gaining profit by others' loss, and 
injuring all who stood in their path. Their fault may 
have been, in the beginning, the result of ignorance, but 
their failure is nothing less than their unwillingness to live 
up to their obligations. 

201. Civic Development.— It is a commonplace that The schools 
all schools should train citizens for democracy. It is not ^ounJin 8 
so well understood that our schools should train useful democrac y- 
citizens in democracy. It is one thing to teach a boy 
what qualities a good citizen should possess and what 
share the best citizens take in their government. It is 
quite a different matter to make him realize that he is now, 
while attending school, a true citizen. As an adult he will 
have the privilege of voting, together with a share in the 
life and work of society, that he can not enjoy as a minor. 
Nevertheless, his life as a citizen does not begin when he 
is twenty-one, nor does it consist largely in the casting of 
ballots. The relationships he has now are almost iden- 
tical with those which he will have when he is older. Civic 
virtues are not one thing for the adult and another for the youth. 
Those qualities which are civic virtues in the man or 
woman and in the public official are equally virtues in the 
right-minded student, whether he be follower or leader. 



266 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



How * 

students 
can be 
trained in 
good citi- 
zenship. 



A simple 
standard of 
political 
democracy. 



A second 
standard of 
democracy. 



Training in democracy in the schools does not limit 
itself to student self-government; it covers absolutely 
every relationship and activity in which the boy or girl 
takes part. Civic development can never be solely for 
the future, but must also be for the present. If present 
relations, opportunities, and obligations are properly 
understood, the student will be a good citizen and not 
simply be prepared for good citizenship. Civic develop- 
ment, then, ought to be one of the first duties of every 
school or society, and the development should be attained 
through practice rather than through precept. If a 
youth obeys simply because he is compelled to do so, and 
not because he is trained in doing the right thing in the 
right way for his own sake and for its own sake, he misses 
one of the finest opportunities that every high school 
ought to give. In order that a pupil may develop, not 
into a good citizen, but as a good citizen, he must know 
what good citizenship is, must have chances to practice 
good citizenship, and must be encouraged to grow with 
the years, until he has reached the highest standard of 
civic development. 

Political Rights and Duties 

202. Political Democracy. — The term democracy has 
usually been limited to political democracy, that is, to 
participation in government. . The ordinary standard by 
which we judge whether a nation has democracy is the 
right of suffrage. If very few people in any country are 
allowed to vote, we speak of the government as undemo- 
cratic. In the past, we have always referred to a govern- 
ment as popular if most men have had the ballot. Nowa- 
days we do not call it democratic unless women as 
well as men are permitted to vote. 

A better standard by which to judge whether a country 
is democratic is the share which voters actually have in 



POLITICAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES 267 

government. Until recently many European countries 
have had manhood suffrage, but the voters took little 
part in government. A century ago, even in America, 
the President, Vice President, and representatives in the 
lower house of Congress were the only national officials 
chosen by popular vote 1 , and in some states only members 
of the legislature and a few minor officials were elected. 
There has been as great an increase in the number of 
officials for whom we can vote as there has been in the 
number of people that are allowed to take part in voting. 
In fact, a few years ago there were so many names on the 
ballot that the ordinary voter could not possibly know 
many of the candidates and could not, therefore, make 
wise decisions as to the best man for each office. The 
twentieth century movement has been to limit the number 
of elected officials in state, county, and city in order that 
voting may be both simpler and more democratic. This 
limitation has been brought about by the short ballot. 

Another standard by which we may judge political Ways of 
democracy is the part which the people have in making democracy. 
or enforcing laws. Public opinion is unquestionably the 
best means by which the people get what they want. 
Public opinion, however, is not always effective. A group 
of politicians may easily defeat the popular will, if they 
are organized and have control of the government, and 
if they are not responsible to the people. Direct legisla- 
tion, 2 including the initiative and referendum, is necessary, 
because otherwise the wishes of the people may be ignored 
by their elected representatives who are working for 
themselves or their party, not for the public. 

In order that a government should be democratic, Relation of 
the public officials must be responsible to the people. If government 
officials may do as they please, and the people have no racy em ° C " 

iThe voters did not vote directly for these candidates nor do they 
now, (§259). 

2 On direct legislation, see Ashley, The New Civics, §§116-120. 



268 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Voting in 
the Amer- 
ican colo- 



nies. 



Universal 

manhood 

suffrage 

during the 

nineteenth 

century. 



check upon them, the government may appear to be 
democratic, but is in fact most undemocratic. Ii' a 
public official is guilty of actual crime, he may be punished 
in the same way as any other offender (§192). If his 
offense is a political one of a semi-criminal nature, and 
the office is an elective one, he may be removed by 
impeachment. If the office is appointive, and pressure 
can be brought to bear upon the officials who have the 
authority, he may be removed. The recall 1 is used in a 
few western states and cities for the removal of officials 
whom the public is unwilling to retain longer in office. 
Ordinarily, the public depends upon frequent elections as 
the best check upon its servants. If the term is short, 
and an elective official wishes to retain his office, he is 
usually careful not to antagonize his constituents. There 
is danger, however, that he will do what is popular rather 
than what is right in order that he may not be defeated 
when the next election occurs. 

203. History of Suffrage.— During colonial times only 
those Americans who owned land were allowed to cast 
ballots. In the North, land of a certain value was required 
of voters, and, in the South, an area of a certain size. 
In addition, no one could vote in colonial America unless 
he were a Protestant. 

Sometimes we get the impression that the Revolutionary 
War was a democratic movement. This impression is 
incorrect. It was a long time after the American Revolu- 
tion before there was much change in the system of voting. 
To be sure, along the frontier, all men were voters because 
land was cheap and it was possible for them to secure it. 
Consequently the frontier states of a century and a 
quarter ago, Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee, led the 
way in giving voting rights to most men. During the 
second quarter of the nineteenth century, the privilege 

lAshley, The New Civics, §121. 



POLITICAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES 269 

of voting was extended to practically all white men who 
were citizens and to some aliens, provided they planned 
later to become citizens. After the Civil War, suffrage 
was extended to all negro men; since 1870 manhood 
suffrage has been universal. 

During the last half century, there have been changes Recent re- 
to limit the right of voting and also to extend it. In Sexten- 
some states men have been excluded if they could not fnSLge. 
read or write, or, in a few southern states, if they did not 
own property. Before 1900 women were allowed to vote 
in some of the mountain territories and states. In 1910 
Washington and in 1911 California adopted woman 
suffrage. The new woman suffrage movement spread 
rapidly throughout the West, and in 1920 the United 
States adopted the nineteenth amendment to the 
national Constitution. By this amendment women may 
vote on the same terms as men throughout this country. 

204. Suffrage at Present.— There are three practically Universal 
universal requirements for voters. The first is residence, mentfof 
No one is allowed to vote unless he is a bona fide resident a11 voters * 
of the precinct, county, and state in which he seeks to 
cast his ballot. The second is the age requirement, since 
all voters in each state must be at least twenty-one years 
of age. The third requirement is citizenship. Three- 
quarters of the states permit only full-fledged citizens to 
take part in elections, but the others grant the elective 
franchise to aliens who have declared their intention of 
becoming citizens. 

Some classes, such as aliens and minors, are directly Persons 
or indirectly debarred from voting. In addition, some from voting, 
individuals are excluded from sharing in elections, 
although they belong to groups whose members may 
vote. For example, persons who are insane or other- 
wise incompetent are universally excluded, as are men 
convicted of some serious crime, for which they have 



270 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Place of the 
parties in 
American 
government. 



The 

permanent 
party com- 
mittees. 



Nature of a 

political 

ring. 



not been pardoned. Inmates of public institutions and 
paupers sometimes are debarred from the exercise of the 
elective franchise. As stated above, some states have 
tried to raise the intellectual standard of voting citizens 
by an educational qualification for all voters. 

205. How the Political Parties are Organized. — We 
speak of American government as democratic. In organ- 
izing our governments and in electing officials, the people 
of the nation are divided into political parties. Our 
government is representative government through political 
parties, two of which have always been especially impor- 
tant. Each party is supposed to include all of the people 
who hold the same views in regard to the kind of govern- 
ment we should have, the policies our governments 
should favor, and the limits of the work they should do. 

Each of these political parties is very well organized. 
At its head is a national committee, made up of one 
representative from each state. Cooperating with this 
national committee are forty-eight state committees, and 
working with them is a committee in each county in each 
state. If the counties are large or rather thickly popu- 
lated, there may be one or two sets of permanent com- 
mittees below the county committee. Because the 
committees of a political party work together like the 
parts of a piece of machinery, we are accustomed to speak 
of the organization of a party as "the machine." Besides 
these permanent committees, each party holds nominating 
conventions (§208). 

206. Bosses and Rings. — It is necessary that political 
parties should be organized; it is not necessary that the 
machine organization should work for itself rather than 
for the public. Sometimes a group of politicians form 
what is known as a ring. They are called by this name 
because, when standing in a ring, no one can be con- 
sidered responsible for anything the group does. 



POLITICAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES 271 

'In a ring there is usually some one person who holds W*mt a boss 
more strings in his hand than do others .... His 
superior skill, courage, and force of will make him, as 
such gifts always do make their possessor, dominant 
among his fellows. An army led by a council seldom 
conquers; it must have a commander-in-chief, who 
settles disputes, decides in emergencies, inspires fear or 
attachment. The head of the ring is such a commander. 
He dispenses places, rewards the loyal, punishes the 
mutinous, concocts schemes, negotiates treaties. He 
generally avoids publicity, preferring the substance to 
the pomp of power, and is all the more dangerous because 
he sits, like a spider, hidden in the midst of his web." 1 

Boss rule is objectionable chiefly because it represents an Objections 
extreme concentration of power, with comparatively little rui e ° £ 
chance of fixing responsibility, although in the long run 
no boss can maintain his position in the face of popular 
opposition. When bosses and rings really control the 
officials who are supposed to govern us, this rule has 
very aptly been called " invisible government." 

207. The Work of the Political Parties. — As stated Partisan 
above, the parties have permanent committees and con- palt and 
ventions. When a convention is to be held or when a P resent - 
campaign is to be conducted, the permanent committees 
work very hard. Formerly, campaign orators and other 
partisan workers gave their services to the cause; expecting 
if the party was successful, to be paid by offices. 
Those were the days of the "spoils system," and most 
politicians believed that " to the victor belongs the spoils." 
To-day comparatively few workers are repaid by 
appointment to office. 

Raising money is one of the most difficult tasks Ways of 
encountered by the national or state chairmen and the Soney. 
county associations. A few years ago the party in power 

1 Bryce, American Commonwealth, 4th ed., II, 113. 



272 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

was accustomed to demand tribute of every officeholder 
under its control. Large sums were assessed upon cor- 
porations and other business organizations which would 
be benefited if the party won the election. Party revenue 
to-day comes chiefly from party supporters who are 
public-spirited enough to make voluntary contributions. 
However, unless it is probable that a party victory will 
benefit those who contribute, the task of raising money is 
a difficult one. 
Advantages Each party wishes to win every election, partly because 
elections. the winning party will have the right to make appoint- 
ments for thousands and possibly tens of thousands of 
offices. Moreover, a party that wins a national or 
several state elections will control government expendi- 
tures amounting to several billions of dollars yearly. 
The party can often aid its friends and injure its enemies 
in the spending. A politician in power may become the 
godfather to the needy of a large district. Political 
leaders of large vision, supported by a successful organiza- 
tion, can carry out policies of lasting benefit, not only to 
the party, but to the public. Not the least of the 
benefits of political parties has been the uniting of people 
of every state, irrespective of ancestry and interest. 
Use and im- 208. Primaries and Nominating Conventions. — When 
primaries the voter goes to the polls on election day, he votes for 
nationaf candidates who have been nominated by the different 
candidates, parties f or the offices that are to be filled at that election. 
These candidates are selected by an elaborate and 
important process. They may be named in nominating 
conventions, but they are usually selected in primaries. 
Ordinarily those direct primaries are in the form of 
primary elections, but even that is not the beginning. 
Each candidate or his friends must circulate petitions and 
secure the signatures of a certain number of voters before 
his name may appear upon the primary ballot. No ballot 



POLITICAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES 



273 



contains the names of the candidates for more than one 
political party. At the primary election, the voters of 
each party are allowed to select one nominee for each of 
the offices to be filled at the next regular election. 

Once in four years each party holds a national nomi- Use ? f 
noting convention, which selects the party candidates for and other 
President and Vice President (§259). In a few of the ventLns! 1- 
older states, nominations for state offices are still made 




Copyright, Underwood and Underwood 

The Republican Nominating Convention 
Chicago, 1920 

through party conventions. Conventions may also be 
called in states, counties, or cities for the purpose of 
drawing up platforms, deciding on party policies, and 
doing other things that the party wishes or needs. 

209. Elections. — Voters are usually compelled to Process of 
register before they may vote. On the election day set 
by law, the voter goes to the polling place within his 
precinct, or voting district. A ballot is furnished to him 



274 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



by one of the election officials. In the seclusion of a 
booth, he makes a mark opposite the names of his choice. 
He also marks "yes" on those amendments or proposed 
laws which he favors and "no" on those which he opposes. 



What may 
be de- 
manded of 
every voter. 




A Polling Place on Election Day 

After folding his ballot, he hands it to another election 
official, who deposits it in the ballot box. Polls are 
usually kept open ten or twelve hours. The votes are 
counted openly by the election officials after the polls 
are closed. Usually the results are known the next day. 
210. Opportunities and Obligations of the Voter. — As 
our country is governed by the people, the success of its 
government depends upon the earnest and intelligent 
action o.f the voting citizens. No voter can be held 
responsible if our government falls into the hands of 
those who desire personal advantage at the expense of the 
public, but every voter is to blame if he has not done 



POLITICAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES 275 

the best that he can to elect responsible officials. If 
he remains away from the polls because of indolence or 
indifference, if he votes in a way that his conscience does 
not approve, if he casts his ballot without understanding 
the principles that his candidates represent and without 
informing himself concerning the merits of the different 
nominees, he is remiss in his duty. Although it is true 
that the individual may, without success, make every 
effort to obtain good government, nevertheless, where mis- 
government exists within the United States, the fault is 
the people's. A majority either desires unfit rulers or 
will not take the trouble to "turn the rascals out." 

To some officials, public office is not a public trust but Responsi- 
a private opportunity. They appoint their friends to the corrupt* 
highest salaried government positions, they obtain com- efficient 
missions or contracts for government work, and they government, 
allow business men to conduct their work in peace only 
in case they pay the required price. Besides these political ;..: ..,: 

pirates, who fortunately are not numerous, there are large 
numbers of incompetent officials. These men waste the 
people's money and mismanage the business of govern- 
ment. If a large proportion of the public offices are filled 
with inefficient or corrupt men, the voters are responsible. 
The task of reform should not be one of supreme difficulty, 
because the great majority of our public servants are 
honest, intelligent, and sincere. On occasion, however, 
the corrupt few are so much in earnest and so active in 
promoting their own interests that they can be removed 
from power by nothing less than an irresistible demand of 
the voters. In political matters, as in some others, 
" eternal vigilance is the price of liberty." 

211. The Leaders in a Democracy. — No nation or Need of 
community can organize its government without leaders, in a 
There is no conflict between the idea of leadership and democrac y- 
the idea of democracy. In spite of the great changes that 



276 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Some dif- 
ferent types 
of leader- 
ship. 



Means of 
preparing 
and select- 
ing leaders. 



have occurred in the form of government and in the 
work of modern society, in spite of the great increase in 
the part that the people take in those governments, and 
in the active work of every human group, it is still true, 
as Longfellow said, 

"For some must follow, and some command, 
Though all are made of clay!" 

The problem of democracy and good citizenship is not, 
therefore, to get rid of leaders, but to find the right 
leaders. Because a man is willing to lead is no proof 
that he is the best person in the particular position for 
which he is chosen. A man who may have great ability 
as an organizer might be a very poor legislator. A man 
may be an excellent executive or first-class administrator, 
but the very qualities which fit him for administrative 
duties would probably unfit him for service as a judge. 

A wise system does not leave to chance either the prep- 
aration or the selection of its leaders. By giving educa- 
tion to all, we try to discover who can profit most by the 
training offered in our high schools and colleges. We 
must have the best possible methods of finding those who 
are especially qualified to serve as^ leaders in different 
positions and use those methods even if they seem rather 
undemocratic. Otherwise, we may have mob rule and 
poor leadership instead of democratic government. To 
potential leaders we must grant experience in different 
types and kinds of leadership, training them for future 
work in broader fields. We must see that no handicap of 
poverty or ignorance prevents a man from securing the 
highest place he is capable of filling well. We must see 
that those who can, must. 

References 

1. Mothers' pensions and the home. Craiger, S. M., Review of 
Reviews, 52 (1915), 81-84. 



POLITICAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES 277 

2. School work and spare time. Haynes and Matson, Com- 
munity Recreation Program (Cleveland Recreation Survey), 17-26, 
65-70. 

3. Hygiene and civilization. Fisher and Fisk, How to Live, 
162-175. 

4. Roosevelt's ideal citizen. — Jacob Riis. Review of Reviews, 
50 (1914), 97-98. 

5. What proportion of the possible voters actually vote? Hart, 
Practical Essays on American Government, 20-57. 

V*6. State party organization. Marriott, How Americans are 
Governed, 264-270; Macy, Party Organization and Machinery, 
96-110. 

^7. The spoils system. Woodburn, Political Parties and Party 
Problems in the United States, 254-265. 

^ 8. Primary elections. Reinsch, Readings on American State 
Government, 383-394. 

9. The nominating convention at work. Bryce, The American 
Commonwealth (abd.), 465-485. 

10. Woman suffrage. Cleveland, Organized Democracy, 
151-168. 

11. Campaign oratory. Hale, W. B., World's Work, 23 (1912), 
673-683. 

^*42. Campaigns and balloting. Marriott, How Americans are 
Governed, 276-284. 

^•13. The short ballot. Childs, R., in Reinsch, Readings on 
American State Government, 372-383. 

^vL4. Graft in city government. Marriott, How Americans are 
Governed, 357-361. 

15. The attitude of the scholar. Jordan, The Voice of the 
Scholar, 1-25. 

16. The strength of American democracy. Bryce, The Amer- 
ican Commonwealth, II, Chap. CII. 

* Young, The New American Government and Its Work, 496-518, 
549-627. 

*Hart, Actual Government, Part II. 
*Cleveland, Organized Democracy, Parts II and III. 
*Bryce, The American Commonwealth. 
*Ostrogorski, Democracy and the Party System. 
*Roosevelt, American Ideals. 

* Primarily for teachers. 



278 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

Questions 

1. Why are important rights positive rather than negative in 
character? Name three reasons why child protection is the most 
important of all social rights. In what ways should the home be 
protected? 

2. What do you understand by "public health"? Compare the 
sanitary situation in a town of a few centuries ago with that in the 
modern city. Name three ways in which the former excessive 
mortality of children has been reduced. Name four in which the 
health of adults has been protected. 

3. Why have education and democracy developed together in 
the modern world? Explain why education in a democratic country 
must be free, public, and compulsory. Give reasons why ordinary 
education should be neither too technical nor too theoretical. 

4. What classes are entitled to rights without assuming the 
corresponding obligations? What is a social criminal? Democracy 
in the schools should include what training? 

5. What do you understand by political democracy? By what 
standard do we ordinarily judge whether a people are democratic? 
Name a better standard for judging democracy. What part does 
public opinion play in political democracy? Why can not a country 
be democratic unless its officials are responsible to the people? 

6. Give the history of suffrage from colonial times to the present. 
Give three practically universal requirements of all voters. State 
the provisions of the United States Constitution that deal with 
suffrage. What are the requirements of voters in this state? 

7. What do you understand by a political party? What dif- 
ferent committees does every political party have? Show how they 
work together like a piece of machinery. Why does a political party 
need money? How does it secure that revenue? Name some of 
the advantages secured by the party that wins at the polls. To 
what political party do the following belong: President, majority 
of members of United States Senate, governor, and state senator 
from this district. 

8. What is a "ring"? Name some of the powers exercised by a 
"boss." What are the chief objections to boss rule? What do you 
understand by "invisible government"? How is it possible for 
us to have democratic government under the party system? 

9. What is meant by a direct primary? Explain the form of 
a primary ballot. Show the importance of the primaries in the 



POLITICAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES 279 

American system of government. Describe the work of a nominat- 
ing convention. 

10. Is registration required for voters of this community? Give 
the election days for the following: President of the United States, 
governor of this state, county officials, elective city officials. Explain 
the form of the ballot used in this state. State the process of voting 
in this locality. If possible, give the number of the voting precinct 
(district) in which you live and the location of the usual polling 
place. 

11. In what ways may a voter fail to do his duty? Is it worse 
to sell one's vote positively for money or negatively for a game of 
golf? Explain your answer. What can we do with officials who 
make public office a private opportunity rather than a public trust? 

12. Why do people usually think of democracy as an organiza- 
tion without leaders? What kinds of leaders does a democracy 
need? What part can education and experience play in the prep- 
aration of leaders? 









CHAPTER XVII 
THE PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC 



Disregard 
for law — 
old and 
new. 



1. Public safety 

a. The problem of crime 

(1) Lawlessness and crime 

(2) Prevention of crime 

(3) Punishment of crime 

(4) The juvenile court 

b. The fire problem 

(1) Fire losses 

(2) Fire rules 

(3) Fire fighting 

2. Health 

a. The value of human life 

b. Control of disease 

c. Disposal of waste 

d. Pure milk and meats 
e: Pure food laws 

3. Housing 

a. The housing problem — general 

b. Condition of many American tenements 

c. Tenement house reform 

Public Safety 

212. Lawlessness and Crime. — Since the World War 
the spirit of lawlessness has been more common than 
it was before. Compared with the total population, 
there are more murders to-day than there were fifteen or 
twenty years ago. Petty offenses also are more numer- 
ous. The loss of life from automobile accidents has be- 
come serious; reckless driving constitutes a new element 
of offense and represents a new type of offender. Dis- 
regard for legal rules and regulations among drivers of 
autos is notorious throughout the country. 

280 



PUBLIC SAFETY 



281 



It is difficult to state the exact meaning of the word Definition 

T , i j n i i r( . . and punis] 

crime, it may be denned, however, as an offense against ment of 
society which is recognized as such by the law, and cnme - 
punished accordingly. It can be seen from this definition 
that an offense is not a crime simply because it is objec- 
tionable or injurious to people. Such an act becomes 
criminal only when a law has been passed which calls it a 
crime. Even if the act is a crime legally, it is really not 




Police Quelling Rioters 



Photo by Brown Bros. 



treated as criminal unless there is a penalty attached to 
the breaking of the law that makes it a felony. 

213. Prevention of Crime. — All cities have policemen Purpose of 
to enforce the laws and to maintain order. A police force, 
force is organized to keep people from committing crimes 
quite as much as to arrest offenders. Every county has a 
sheriff, with deputies, to arrest offenders and enforce the 



282 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Different 
types of 
police 
officers. 



Trial and 
punishment 
of offenders. 



Prison 

methods 

and 

desirable 

reforms. 



law. If a county is made up of townships, there are 
usually local police officers called constables. 

Police departments consist chiefly of detectives, patrol- 
men, and traffic officers. The detectives make a business 
of investigating crimes in which the criminal is unknown. 
They study the case, try to locate the offender, and gather 
evidence of his guilt. The patrolmen are organized in 
two or three squads and are assigned to different beats. 
They are on duty for the purpose of preventing crime 
and of aiding those who need information or other help. 
The patrolmen are usually ready to take a risk or sacrifice 
their own lives for a child in danger. Traffic officers are 
on duty at street corners where travel is heavy. By 
enforcing the rule that autos and wagons shall go in only 
one direction at one time, they prevent congestion and 
accidents. If they are discourteous to those who use 
the streets, it is probably because many Americans pay 
little attention to rules made for the regulation of traffic. 

214. Punishment of Crime. — Any person accused of 
crime may demand a jury trial. He is tried openly, his 
own witnesses testify in his behalf, and he is not obliged 
to testify against himself. Every opportunity is given for 
an accused person to prove his innocence. If convicted, 
however, he is sent to some county jail or state penitentiary 
to serve the term for which he has been sentenced. 
Usually these institutions provide some kind of work, in 
order that the prisoner may not be kept in solitary 
confinement and in idleness. 

Unfortunately, most of our prisons are not organized 
and managed according to twentieth century methods. 
Instead of studying the criminal and finding out the physi- 
cal, mental, or moral reasons that led the offender to com- 
mit the crime, our prison authorities are usually satisfied 
to hold him within its walls and try to keep him busy. 
The majority of criminals are probably of a low type 




PUBLIC SAFETY 283 

mentally. Each offender should be examined and 
studied carefully. Prisoners should be allowed to earn 
something for the support of their families. Those who 
have stolen or destroyed property should be compelled 
to pay the owner an amount equal to his loss. Moreover, 
the whole system of punishing criminals should be so 
organized that those who can be reformed are given 
opportunities to make a new start. Society owes to itself, 
if not to its criminals, a system of punishment which shall 
reduce the amount of crime, protect society more perfectly, 
and give the offender a better chance to become a fairly 
decent citizen. 

215. The Juvenile Court. — The old saying, "An ounce What con- 
of prevention is worth a pound of cure" applies well to offense 
crime and criminals. Certainly no person is guilty of standpoint 
crime unless he intends to commit a serious offense, is °L the 1 

7 offender. 

mentally old enough to understand that he has been guilty 
of a felony, and is therefore responsible for his acts. 
Young boys and girls and adults of low mentality are not 
responsible. Since the majority of real offenders among 
children, as well as among adults, are mental defectives, 
they must be treated as such and not as criminals. If 
necessary, they must be kept in institutions or homes 
where they will have little chance to injure others. 

Few juvenile offenders are guilty of serious offenses. Nature of 
The acts with which they are charged may have been juvenile 
caused by some boyish excess of spirits or girlish thought- ° enses - 
lessness. The right kind of training and education in the 
home and in the school can and should reduce the number 
of youthful pranks that seem to be misdemeanors. 

In most of our large cities youthful offenders are not Hearing in 
tried in regular courts. A special judge takes charge of court, 
all cases involving boys and girls. The child is not 
treated as a criminal; no charge is brought against him, 
and his case is not tried by a jury. With his accuser 



284 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Treatment 
of juvenile 
offenders. 



and sponsors, he meets the judge in his chambers. 
No outsiders know about the accusation, and the child, 
unembarrassed by the presence of policemen, spectators, 
or newspaper reporters, has an opportunity for a heart- 
to-heart talk with the judge. 




Copyright, Underwood and Underwood 

In a Juvenile Court 

Ordinarily the child, if guilty, is placed upon 'probation 
and is obliged to report at regular intervals to the court. 
If he is still of school age, he is kept in school; otherwise, 
employment is secured for him, and he is visited by the 
probation officers and friends. If he has no satisfactory 
home of his own, one may be found for him. As far as 
possible, he is placed on his honor. If the juvenile court 
judge or probation officers use good judgment, they are 
rarely disappointed in the boys and girls. 



PUBLIC SAFETY 285 

216. Fire Losses. — In the United States most dwellings Defective 
and many stores and office buildings are constructed of ™Suc-° f 
wood. The interior of many brick or concrete buildings tion ' 
consists largely of wood. Very few are really fireproof 

or even partially fireproof. Because of the inflammable 
materials used, because of defective flues and other vents, 
and because of poor wiring, fire starts easily in American 
buildings, and spreads rapidly. 

The annual loss from fire in the United States was Fire losses 
estimated ten years ago as two hundred and fifty million fi^ s . great 
dollars. To-day it is probably twice as great. Not all 
of this loss was due to the burning of buildings, for the 
estimates include forest fires and other fire losses. Al- 
though present property losses are unnecessarily heavy, 
our cities may never be visited again by such destructive 
fires as those which devasted parts of Boston and of 
Chicago in 1871. 

217. Fire Rules.— In our larger cities there are build- Regulations 
ing restrictions. In the center of the city are areas, prevention 
within the fire limits of which no frame building may be of fires - 
constructed. Every building must be provided with a fire 

escape and possibly with a staircase which, though within 
the building, is practically separated from the rest of the 
structure. Numerous rules have been made for the con- 
struction of chimneys, and for the venting of any fire- 
place or heater using gas, but in many cities these rules 
are not enforced. In any case, most buildings were built 
before these stricter rules were made. 

It is especially necessary that the fire regulations should Problem of 
be strict and be carefully enforced within theatres, theken- d 
churches, schools, and industrial buildings. In theatres forcement - 
asbestos curtains usually separate the stage from the 
audience and therefore delay the spread of fire. The 
inexcusable habit of keeping doors locked is frequently 
responsible for great loss of life. Fire drills in schools 



286 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Old-fash- 
ioned meth- 
ods of 
fighting 
fire. 



Modern 

fire-fighting 

apparatus. 



have undoubtedly saved thousands of lives because few 
school buildings are fireproof, and fires do occur in them 
occasionally. 

218. Fire Fighting. — In country districts no fire de- 
partments exist, but every city spends a large sum of 
money on its fire apparatus and department. Three 
fourths of a century ago fires were fought by voluntary 
companies, the members of which passed buckets from 




A Modern Fire Engine 

hand to hand or pumped water from the nearest hydrants, 
vying with each other to see which could reach the fire 
first and throw a stream farthest and highest. 

Our modern fire departments include up-to-date 
chemical engines, which are high-powered automobiles, 
fully equipped. There are hose carts, which carry long 
lines of hose, and ladder trucks, which provide ladders 
for reaching upper stories. In the larger cities extension 
towers are used which can be raised to a considerable 
height. From these a stream of water can be thrown 
directly into the upper windows of a burning building. 



PUBLIC SAFETY 287 

Our . fire departments are organized in one or two ° n e and 
platoon systems, If all firemen are obliged to live at the systems. 
fire house, and be ready for call at any time, the one 
platoon system is in use. If, however, half of them are on 
duty long hours one week and short hours the next, it is 
then possible for the men to live at their homes. This is 
the greatest advantage of the two platoon system. 

Health 

219. The Value of Human Life. — How much is a human Some means 
life worth? It would be difficult to determine the value to ing human 
society of such a life as that of George Washington. Un- values - 
fortunately we can estimate the cost to society of the 
lives of some criminals; but most of us are neither great 
leaders nor serious offenders. Although we can not be 
certain of even the economic value of a human life, we 
do know that if a man is a good citizen, industrious 
and saving, he is worth more to society than the man who 
is always breaking laws, who is idle and yet at the same 
time wasteful. The person who learns to use the hours 
wisely, who gives both time and thought to work that he 
wants to do and that society needs, is likely to be a bless- 
ing to all with whom he is associated. The value of 
human life therefore depends upon how it is lived, but it 
depends also upon how long it is lived. 

A century or two ago the average human life was not increased 
more than thirty years; to-day it is at least forty. A deceased 
century or two ago probably half of the children died mortallt y- 
before they were five; nowadays not more than one in 
five die during the first year, and in some communities 
figures seem to show that nine out of ten probably sur- 
vive the first year. The decrease in infant mortality is 
one of the greatest gains made by modern civilization. 

If the span of life has been increased from thirty to 
forty-five years, or if the average life for those that sur- 



288 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Possible 
value of 
increased 
length of 
life. 



Reasons 
for low 
death rate. 



Loss of 
life from 
epidemics in 
the past. 



Uses of 
quarantine 
against the 
spread of 
contagious 
diseases. 



vive the fifth year has increased from forty-five to sixty 
years, we can easily see how much more useful the modern 
man may be than was his great-grandfather. If a man 
who lived to be forty-five spent ten years on an education, 
he had thirty years for work, but he was not well prepared 
to do that work. But, if a man lives to be sixty and 
spends fifteen years in preparation, he can do more every 
year than could the man who left school at fifteen — and 
he has forty possible years in which to work. It is hardly 
too much to say that, other things being equal, the 
second man may do twice as much as the first. To ex- 
press the same idea in another way, he can do fifty per 
cent more work and have more time to enjoy life and the 
products of his labor. 

220. Control of Disease. — The death rate of the aver- 
age American city to-day is only about a third as high as 
was that of the English maufacturing town of the last 
century. This change is due chiefly to improved sanita- 
tion, including better plumbing and more scientific 
methods. It is due largely, however, to our greater 
knowledge of disease, its causes, its prevention, and its 
cure. Most public health activities are negative and 
preventive; rules are usually enforced by state and local 
boards of health. 

In past ages, epidemics were very common. Among 
these smallpox was probably the worst scourge. When 
people were gathered in cities, the losses were heavier than 
where they were more widely separated and lived more 
in the open. Most of the epidemics of the past have 
been conquered and now we seldom have widespread 
outbreaks. 

One of the means used to prevent the spread of in- 
fectious diseases is the use of quarantine. For example, 
at a seaport persons suffering from an infectious disease 
are excluded from entering the United States. Local 



HEALTH 



289 



quarantines are often enforced and people are prevented 
from entering or leaving an area in which an infectious 
disease exists. Quarantines are established also in 
separate homes, the members of which are not allowed to 
visit other people. 

A second way in which epidemics are prevented, or made 
less harmful, is by keeping streets, homes, and yards 
cleaner, because many infectious or contagious diseases 
are due to filth. A third reason why epidemics are less 
common is the teaching or use of preventive measures in 
schools. Medical attention is given to those who are 
likely to spread disease and students are told how to fight 
disease after it starts. A fourth method of prevention is 
the improvement in our supplies of drinking water. 
Numerous diseases, notably typhoid fever, are caused by 
the impurities found in a water supply. By furnishing 
water from watersheds which have been kept clean 
(§163), the health of a city can be improved greatly. 

The work of health protection should not be limited to 
the control of contagious diseases. It should include 
measures for the improvement of the health of the indi- 
vidual. Most progressive school systems are doing a 
necessary preventive work by examining all school 
children. Frequently the relief of some apparently minor 
defect, e. g. in the teeth or in nasal passages, has changed 
a sickly or apparently dull pupil into a vigorous, intelligent 
student. This work Of school clinics may become one of 
the first duties of a school system, since good health is the 
first requisite of a brain in good working order. Our 
schools should work for "a sound mind in a sound 
body.'' 1 

221. Disposal of Waste. — Clean streets are necessary 
for the health of city dwellers, since every wind carries 

1 The new psychology gives us a new scientific basis for the old motto. 
It teaches that "mind" may be almost as much a product of the trunk 
as of the brain. 



Other pre- 
ventative 
or precau- 
tionary 
measures 
against 
contagion. 



Efficiency 
work of 
school 
clinics. 



290 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Removal of 
dust, rub- 
bish, and 
garbage. 



The 

problem 
of sewage 
disposal. 



Milk regu- 
lations aiid 
inspection. 



multitudes of germs from the dust or filth of pavements. 1 
The collection and disposal of rubbish and garbage is one 
of the most perplexing problems of American cities. 
Although this necessary sanitary work is usually done 
by city agents, it is frequently performed in an unsanitary 
manner, Some cities have established incinerators, which 
dispose of all combustible wastes. This method is some- 
what more expensive than others. A few cities are 
following the European plan of separating the liquids in 
refuse and garbage and using the residue for fertilizer; 
but this system can be used advantageously only on a 
large scale. 

The most important of the city's sanitary problems 
from the engineering point of view and from the view- 
point of health is the disposal of sewage. Practically 
every large city has adopted a network of sewers, con- 
nected with an outfall sewer which conveys the sewage 
to some place at a distance. Frequently sewage is treated 
with chemicals in septic tanks, possibly on a farm 
owned by the city. If a city has^a poor sewage system 
or poor plumbing in its houses, its death rate is unneces- 
sarily high. 

222. Pure Milk and Meats. — Good health is impossible 
without pure milk as well as pure water. Particularly in 
city tenements is there close connection between infant 
mortality and the character of the city's milk supply. 
Almost all modern cities have definite standards for the 
quality of milk which may be sold within their limits. At 
regular intervals health officers inspect all dairies in order 
to see that the cows are healthy and that their quarters 

1 Marvelous improvements were wrought in New York, 1894-1898, 
by one man, Colonel Waring, with his "white angels." Waring's work 
in Havana and Colonel Gorgas' sanitary achievements in the Canal 
Zone have been even more remarkable. In cleaning the streets of 
American cities care is taken to have the work done chiefly by mechan- 
ical sweepers at night and, if possible, after the pavements have been 
watered to avoid the raising of dust. 






HEALTH 



291 



are kept clean. Local ordinances as well as food laws 
prohibit the use of preservatives in milk. 1 

Local food inspectors examine meat as well as milk, Inspection 
seeking to prevent the sale of spoiled meats, or meat that and fruit, 
has been kept by the use of preservatives. Local, state, 
and national inspectors usually supervise carefully the 
slaughter and packing houses. 2 A similar work is per- 




A False Measure 

formed by fruit inspectors, who condemn perishable foods 
that have been kept too long. State or local inspectors 
examine weights to see that scales give honest weight 
and inspect measures to be certain that boxes have no 
false bottoms and are of the size advertised. 

223. Pure Food Laws. — A few years ago the American 
people discovered that many of the foods they were 

1 The milk campaigns carried on in Rochester, New York, and many 
other cities have resulted in a decreased infant death rate. In some 
communities model milk depots have been established, which are 
clean and which seek to distribute milk at a low cost. In a few cities in the 
tenement districts during hot weather ice has been sold at cost to pre- 
serve the children's supply of food. 

2 National inspectors may condemn meats which are unsatisfactory; 
the approved product is marked "United States inspected and 
passed." In the canning and preserving rooms of packing houses and 
food factories, especial care is taken to maintain cleanliness and to 
encourage the use of up-to-date methods. 



292 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

Need of eating were not properly prepared or were not made up 
laws. ( of the ingredients which they had supposed. In some 

cases absolutely injurious drugs were used to keep the 
food from spoiling. In fact, some of these preservatives 
were poisons. In the year 1906 the national government 
passed a pure food law, and many of the states imme- 
diately followed its example. 
General Most of these laws compel the manufacturers of foods 

pureTood and drugs to mention any injurious or poisonous sub- 
laws * stances contained in their product. They are not, 

however, required to name the materials of which their 
foods are made. Even under the present law, it is not 
possible, therefore, for a buyer to know just what he is 
getting, although he can be reasonably certain that he is 
not buying something entirely different from what he 
imagines. Articles containing poisons can not be thrust 
upon him without his knowledge. 
Specific Coal tar dyes, a form of coloring matter which is mis- 

ofpure° nS leading rather than harmful, can -now be used at drug 
food laws, gtores and in foods only when the words " artificial color- 
ing" are placed in a conspicuous position. Certain pre- 
servatives are prohibited altogether; others, such as 
benzoic acid, must not be used except in very minute 
quantities. Oleomargarine may no longer be sold as 
butter and is taxed at the rate of ten cents a pound. 
Patent medicine labels must declare the amount of 
certain ingredients. 

Housing 

Present 224. The Housing Problem — General. — In these days 

dwellmgs° the housing problem is one of quantity as well as of quality. 
Because of the high cost of building, and because prac- 
tically no dwellings were erected during the World War, 
there is probably a shortage of one million houses in the 
United States at the present time. 



HOUSING 



293 



From the point of view of health, the housing; problem Condition 

i °* man y 

is one of too poor rather than too few houses. Many 



families are obliged to live in shacks. In crowded 
quarters it is impossible to take proper care of health. 
The real housing problem, however, is the slum tenement. 
Fortunately American cities cover a larger area than those 
of Europe, and we do not need to accommodate so many 



country 
and city 
dwellings. 




Courtesy National Child Labor Committee 

An Undesirable Tenement 

people in each room. As noted above, practically two 
thirds of the families of many European cities live in one- 
or two-room tenements. 
225. Condition of Many American Tenements. — Unsanitary 

. . condition i: 

American conditions, however, are very bad. Many of many of 
the tenements are old, dirty, and unsanitary. Sometimes tenements, 
there is no running water for each apartment. Several 
families are obliged to depend upon a common tap. In 
old days these faucets were usually located in the hall at 



294 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Condition 
of many 
tenement 
rooms. 



The sweat 
shop evil. 



improve- 
ment of old 
tenements. 



New build- 
ing regula- 
tions. 



the head of a staircase. As the water ran into wooden 
sinks, the hall and staircase were frequently in an inde- 
scribable condition. 

In most of these tenements the rooms are dark and 
poorly ventilated. A few of them face streets which are 
not much more attractive than that shown in the illus- 
tration on page 293. Most of them open on courts which 
are so narrow that, if windows are opposite each other, 
the inmates can shake hands across the intervening space. 
Sunlight rarely penetrates into such dungeons . Frequently 
the rooms are dark, for inside rooms have no windows and 
therefore no ventilation. In them children have been 
born, brought up, and have lived a large part of their 

lives. 

s In rooms such as these sweat shop workers toil long 

f hours for a mere pittance 1 . Only a few years ago, for the 

\- making of a dozen children's dresses, a sweat shop worker 

and her children received only forty-five cents. They 

were therefore obliged to work twelve or fourteen hours 

a day, and every member of the family, even the little 

tots, was compelled to help. 

226. Tenement House Reform. — Within the last 
quarter century repeated efforts have been made to con- 
struct better tenements within our larger cities. Although 
old tenements have continued in use, their plumbing has 
been improved, and the worst dangers to health, due to 
filth and bad ventilation, have been removed in part. 
Very little, however, can be done to make a disreputable 
tenement into a decent place in which to live. 

Under the new laws no builder may erect a tenement 
which covers most of the lot. Whereas formerly build- 
ings left only about ten per cent of the ground space open, 
now they are obliged to leave twenty-five to thirty per 
cent for a yard. Courts must be of fair width. This 

iNote the illustration given on page 44. 






HOUSING 



295 



change gives opportunity for a little sunlight and for 
more fresh air. 

Fire escapes are required in practically all tenements, Superiority 
new and old. It would be difficult, however, to use tenements 
many of the fire escapes because they are cluttered with 
broken furniture and 
other articles. In spite 
of the fact that the 
tenement housing 
laws are not enforced 
as strictly as they 
should be, dwellers in 
the tenement districts 
are much better off 
than were their 
parents a generation 
ago. 

References 

1. Lawlessness a few 
years ago. McCluee, S. 
S., McClure's Magazine, 
24 (1904), 163-171. 

2. Lawlessness since 
the World War. Fos- 
dick, American Police Systems, 9-27. 

3. Guarding a city against vice and crime. Beard, American 
City Government, 158-189. 

4. Shameful miscarriage of justice. Fuller, H. B., World's 
Work, 13 (1906), 8221-8226. 

5. Causes of juvenile delinquency. Mangold, Problems of 
Child Welfare, 348-360. 

6. The juvenile court. Mangold, Problems of Child Welfare, 

363-376. 

7. Fire departments and their work. Zueblin, American 
Municipal Progress, 130-136. 

8. Modern fire-fighting equipment, Skerett, R. G., Scientific 
American Monthly, 3 (1921), 329-332. 




A Model Tenement, Lower East 
Side, New York City . 



296 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

9. The waste of human life. Mangold, Problems of Child 

Welfare, 31-43. 

10. Conservation of human life. Van Hise, The Conservation 
of Natural Resources in the United States, 364-372. 

11. Public health. Hoag, Health Studies, 167-176. 

12. Health work in the public schools. Ayres, The Cleveland 
School Survey (Cleveland Education Survey), 194-202. 

13. Work, play, rest, and sleep. Fisher and Fisk, How to 

Live, 105-123. 

14. The possibilities of hygiene. Fisher and Fisk, How to 

Live, 154-162. 

15. Disposal of city wastes. Cleveland Hospital and Health 

Survey, Part I, 67-82. 

16. Water and health. Beard, American City Government, 

266-271. 

17. Pure milk and city death rates. Mangold, Problems of 

Child Welfare, 79-96. 

18. Housing problem. Cleveland Hospital and Health Survey, 

Part I, 48-56. 

19. Building regulations. Marriott, How Americans are Gov- 
erned, 296-301. 

20. Tenement house reform. Beard, American City Govern- 
ment, 287-310. 

*Leacock, The Unsolved Riddle of Social Justice. 

*Flexner and Baldwin, Juvenile Courts and Probation. 

*Fisher and Fisk, How to Live. 

♦National Housing Conference, (1920), Housing Problems in 

America. 

*Hill, The New Public Health. 

♦Marshall, Wright, and Field (eds.), Materials for the Study 
of Elementary Economics, 105-156. 

Questions 

1. Give some facts regarding lawlessness, comparing misde- 
meanors to-day with those of a few years ago and crimes a quarter 
of a century ago and to-day. What is the attitude of the American 
people toward law enforcement? 

2. When is an offense criminal? Why are offenses not treated 
as crimes unless they have legal penalties? How large a police 
force do we have in this community? How are the members 

*Primarily for teachers. 



HOUSING 297 

selected? Could the method of selection or the character of the 
service be improved? If so, how? What does each branch of the 

service do? 

3. Why should we have open trials? Is it desirable (a) that the 
accused person should be allowed to call witnesses; (6) that he 
should not be obliged to testify against himself? What is a "sen- 
tence"? Does prison instruction or work teach the prisoner a 
trade? Should it do so? Why should a study be made of the 
physical, mental, and moral condition of the prisoner? What is 
the purpose of a system of punishment? 

4. Is it fair to punish a criminal whose mental age is not more 
than ten years? At what mental age can a person be considered 
responsible? What kind of juvenile offenders ought never to be 
taken before any court? How should juvenile offenders be tried 
and punished? What is meant by probation? What should be 
done for the probationer? 

5. Of what materials are most of our houses constructed? Name 
at least three causes of fires. To what extent might fire losses be 
reduced by better building rules and by enforcement of the rules 
that we have? Name some special ways in which loss of property 
or life may be reduced. 

6. How were fires formerly fought? Describe the apparatus 
used by a modern fire department. What do you understand by 
the two platoon system? Give facts in regard to the fire depart- 
ment of this community. 

7. Upon what two things does the value of a human life depend? 
If life can be lengthened ten years, why will its productiveness be 
increased greatly? By what means has the death rate been reduced? 
Name ways in which epidemics have been combated. 

8. What is the problem of clean streets, clean yards, and of 
clean cellars? Discuss the problems of disposal of rubbish, garbage, 
and sewage. If possible, visit the local health office and at least 
one department connected with some problem of sanitation. Write 
a report on the results of your trip. 

9. How can a city's milk supply be improved? What has been 
done to insure better meats? Give at least four provisions of the 
national pure food law or of the food law of this state. 

10. Why has there been a shortage of dwelling places in recent 
years? How is a city's housing problem closely connected with the 
problem of transportation? Describe some of the unsanitary con- 
ditions found in the old-style tenement. Name at least four provi- 
sions of the new building laws in effect for tenements. 



CHAPTER XVIII 



SOCIAL ACTIVITIES OF GOVERNMENT 

Education 

a. Need of public schools in a, democracy 

b. Essentials of democratic education 

c. Education for citizenship 

d. Our present system of public schools 
Charity 

a. Causes of poverty 

b. Dependent children 

c. Paupers and other dependents 

d. Hospitals and dispensaries 

e. The duty of society to its needy classes 
Parks and playgrounds 

a. Playgrounds — general 

b. A typical city playground 
Public parks and boulevards 
Types of parks and recreation 
City planning 
Civic centers 



c. 
d. 
e. 

f. 



Education 



Education 227. Need of Public Schools in a Democracy. — In a 

ranee under nation governed by an absolute monarch, or by nobles, 
government, it is not necessary that the common people should be 
educated to help govern, especially if the rulers do not 
wish to govern well or wisely. In such countries the 
people must remain ignorant in order that they may not 
understand how badly they are ruled. In time, of course, 
they will assert themselves. Then their ignorance may 
lead to revolution, to unnecessary bloodshed, and to still 
worse government. Such a country is not only in danger 
of a day of reckoning, but it loses all of the economic and 

298 




EDUCATION 299 

social progress which would have been brought to it by 
educated citizens. 

In a democratic nation, education is not a luxury; it is importance 
a necessity, because it is a means of self-preservation. In education 
a republic such as ours, education is necessary for the democracy, 
proper understanding of the principles and the practice 
of popular and representative government. It is essential 
to the choice of the best officials, to the enactment of the 
best laws, and to the enforcement of law and order. 
Without civic education we must submit to the rule of 
the few who know how to rule and can do so, or we must 
be content with mob rule. We must be satisfied with poor 
laws and with incompetent public servants. 

Free public education is one of the chief means by Social pur- 
which youthful citizens learn to be useful members of free com- 
society. The education is not only for the benefit of the pUbSc- 7 
individual as an individual, but also for the advancement education, 
and development of the whole people. Free public educa- 
tion must be compulsory, at least for the grammar grades. 
If part-time work has been developed (§149), students of 
average intelligence can be required to remain in school, 
provided their help is not needed at home. If a state has 
good laws regarding mothers' pensions, workmen's com- 
pensation, and other forms of social insurance, every boy 
and girl should be able to spare a half day for school, at 
least until the age of sixteen. 

228. Essentials of Democratic Education. — What kind Why gen- 
of citizen should our schools produce? Should he have a tion is 
general education or a technical education? Should our Jf^ citizen- 
graduates be men of culture, men of affairs, or cultured Bhip - 
men of affairs? Can a man really help to manage a 
republic if he lacks the elements of a general education? 
If he is trained in only one craft, how is he to know much 
about so. complicated a society as this nation of ours? If 
he does not know what his rights are or of what his duties 



300 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Why a 

practical 
education 
is valuable. 



consist/ because his knowledge is too limited and his 
comprehension is too narrow, how can he be a good citizen? 
Shall we not say that, the more general knowledge he has, 
the better he is able, other things being equal, to be a real 
man and do his part in the world? 

Shall he then learn no useful occupation or trade? 
Most of us must earn a living, and we want it to be a 
decent living, which will support others than ourselves. 




Copyright, Frown Bros. 

An Advanced Class in Millinery 

Should the school prepare its pupils for a craft or should 
it not? Certainly all must admit that a practical educa- 
tion is necessary; but what is most practical? From the 
dollars and cents point of view, a practical education is 
one that prepares a man or a woman to earn as good a 
living as possible with the least possible sacrifice. In the 
long run, general education may be more practical than 
technical education, because large personal incomes are 
usually earned by men who are well educated. Moreover, 



EDUCATION 



301 



modern' society is learning that for a nation, as well as for 
a citizen, the best education is the cheapest. We are con- 
stantly demanding more school training as preparation 
for life and citizenship. For those who are in attendance 
at school, but especially for those who are not, the public 
library is one of the greatest aids to self-education. 
Books of a serious character are especially valuable, 
and good novels help us to understand life. The 
formation of public opinion is aided greatly by magazines 
and newspapers. 

229. Education for Citizenship. — Many progressive 
students of education have laid stress upon the fact that 
education should prepare us for citizenship. They have 
urged that courses be given in the nature of our govern- 
ment and in the activities carried on by those govern- 
ments. Some of them have gone much farther and have 
argued for a study of the citizen in his relation to those 
governments and activities. A few have gone still far- 
ther, because they have made a study of the citizen in his 
relation to other members of society, even if those other 
members do not hold office or have political duties. 1 

In many schools this work in civics or citizenship is 
given in the last half of the course, preferably in the 
senior year in connection with American history. In 
many high schools, particularly in the East, courses in 
community civics have been given in the junior high or 
intermediate school. In Indianapolis, Philadelphia, 
Southern California cities, and a number of others, well 
organized courses in citizenship for the grades have laid 
a foundation for better work in the high schools. The 
requirements of an excellent course include, at the least, 
three elements: (1) some systematic training in citizen- 

i A great deal of citizenship work can be done in history and in 
courses other than those in the social sciences. Patriotic orations are 
often studied in English classes. Many sciences help us to know our- 
selves. Almost every subject explains something of. man's relation to 
his fellows or his environment. 



Contents of 
different 
citizenship 
courses. 



Civics 
courses for 
different 
grades of 
pupils. 



302 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



High school 
courses in 
citizenship 
and civics. 



Organiza- 
tion of 
schools. 



ship in the grades; (2) an organized course in the junior 
high school which shall deal with the citizen in his civic 
relations and give some idea of the way in which society, 
is organized for government, business, and other purposes; 
and (3) an advanced course in civics or civic problems, the 
character of the course depending upon the work that has 
been done by the students in earlier years. 

As many schools do not give good citizenship courses in 
the grammar grades, it is highly desirable that there should 
be at least one first-class course in citizenship before the 
student has passed the ninth year of school. Such a 
course can not be given very early, because the students 
are not sufficiently mature or intelligent to obtain the 
most from it. Since, however, a large majority of students 
drop out before the seventh year, and another half before 
the end of the ninth year, it is desirable that the course 
should be given not later than the ninth year. For 
students who are almost ready to graduate from high 
school a still more advanced course is highly desirable. 
Because of their greater maturity and mental develop- 
ment, they can understand better the underlying principles 
of government and civic problems, which would not be 
appreciated in earlier years. 

230. Our Present System of Public Schools. — In a 
single section it is difficult to describe our present system 
of public schools. In general, it might be said that most 
cities provide primary and grammar schools, usually 
covering a course of eight years in addition to a kinder- 
garten. In most states public high schools are provided 
as a part of the general plan. These high schools ordi- 
narily give a four years' course. Another arrangement 
has been adopted to some extent in recent years. It 
combines the first six grades for the lower division 
and divides the upper six grades into a junior high 
school, including the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, 



EDUCATION 



303 



and the senior high, including the tenth, eleventh 
and twelfth. 

The smaller country schools are not well organized or The 
graded, because their students are few in number and grading 
many of their teachers are not well paid. In the city pupi s ' 
schools, on the contrary, a system of grading has been 
worked out carefully. Almost every city school is large 




Photo by George F. Clifton 

Los Angeles High School, Los Angeles, California 

enough to contain each grade. The larger schools usually 
have two or three classrooms of the same grade. In 
some cities there are ungraded schools for those who show 
marked ability, those who are behind their fellows in some 
subject, or those who are deficient in mental capacity. 

In the country, most high schools are general schools, H jf h , • 
and give little technical education. If there is but one small and 
high school in a city, it usually offers a large number of muStiesT" 
courses, some literary, some scientific, some technical. 
If a city is large enough to have several high schools, there 
is likely to be one that is general, a second that is com- 
mercial, a third that is industrial and technical, and a 
fourth that may be scientific. Occasionally a community 



304 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Content of 
courses and 
methods be- 
low the high 
school. 



Need of 

public 

charity. 



Personal 
causes of 
poverty. 



offers free courses in junior college work, that is, for the 
first two years of college. In a few cities there are city 
colleges, which give regular college courses and degrees. 
By general consent the courses for the first six grades 
are much alike, and are required by all students. The 
older subjects, particularly the three "R/s," are the basis 
of the work during these earlier years. In addition, there 
are a number of newer subjects, some of which make use of 
the student's ability to draw and to work on models of 
paper, wood, or clay. Especial attention is paid to learn- 
ing by doing, but the classes are usually too large for 
much individual instruction. In many advanced gram- 
mar grades and in all junior high schools, a beginning is 
made of departmental instruction (§57). There are 
frequently separate teachers for English, history, mathe- 
matics, and other branches. Moreover, not all of the 
subjects are required, and students may be allowed to elect 
a modern language, a commercial branch, or special work 
in art, music, or mechanics. As already described (§116), 
the high school assumes that each student will select 
courses fitting his abilities and preferences. 

Charity 

231. Causes of Poverty. — There are in every com- 
munity certain persons who are unable or unwilling to 
provide for themselves. Most of them have relatives 
who give them a home and the necessaries of life. The 
rest are a burden upon society and must be supported 
by private charity or at public expense. 

The causes of poverty are numerous. Some are as old 
as human nature. Shiftlessness, intemperance, vice, and 
lack of economy keep many from having their share of 
the necessities as well as the comforts of life. Only force 
would compel some people to earn a decent living, so 
ingrained is their laziness. Others believe that the world 



CHARITY 



305 



owes them a living, reversing the dictum of the good 
citizen that he owes the world a life. Still others are by 
nature, lack of training, or temperament unable to do 
any work properly; they are the incompetents, the ne'er- 
do-wells, part of whose burdens must be assumed by 
society. 

Our modern industrial system leads to a great deal of 
poverty and even of pauperism. No longer is there regular 
work or free land for every family. Some occupations 
are overcrowded, perhaps in the community within which 
a laborer lives. Many industries give employment only 
at intervals. Modern industry is possible because of the 
development of huge and dangerous machines; but labor 
has paid a heavy toll in maimed limbs and in diseased or 
distorted bodies (§182). The injury or death of the chief 
wage earner of a family has been a prolific cause of poverty. 

232. Dependent Children. — There is no class of people 
whose needs are greater than those of children who have 
no home. In order to protect the public, it is necessary 
to care for children of this type. Otherwise, they grow 
up in ignorance, and the bad habits they learn in childhood 
make it easy for them to become criminals. Since many 
of these children are mentally defective, it is especially 
necessary that they should be placed in children's homes 
and protected until they are capable of making their own 
way in the world. Although an institution for children 
is not so good as a separate home would be, it is infinitely 
better than a city street, as an abode and a place of 
education. 

It is probably wise to have the children from an ordinary 
institution attend a public school rather than to maintain 
a separate school for them within the walls of the institu- 
tion. Moreover, there should be special schools for 
different types of defective children. Those who are of 
low mentality should be separated from the others and 



Economic 
causes of 
poverty. 



The 

problem 
of the 
dependent 
child. 



The educa- 
tion of the 
dependent 
child. 



306 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Classes of 
poor people. 



Forms of 
charity out- 
side of in- 
stitutions. 



Public in- 
stitutions 
for paupers. 



Care of the 
sick and the 
sick poor 
in public 
hospitals. 



trained in an entirely different way. It stands to reason 
that there should be special schools for those who are 
blind and for those who are deaf. These schools should give 
the children a fairly good general education, and so train 
them that they will be able to earn a living. In many 
special schools the equipment furnished, the methods 
used, and the instruction given are of a high character. 

233. Paupers and Other Dependents. — There are two 
classes of the poor: (1) those who are partially destitute, 
and are therefore dependent in some degree on public or 
private charity, and (2) paupers whose very existence 
depends on help received from the public. 

The aid given to a person who is simply poor is different 
than that which is meted out to one who is a pauper. The 
ordinary poor can receive some outdoor relief, provided 
they are not pauperized by it. This help may be food, or 
it may be in the form of coal, clothing, or other neces- 
saries. Medical aid may possibly be provided in the 
homes. Even with those who are destitute, it is probably 
wiser not to give much outdoor relief unless every case is 
studied carefully and the officials in charge of the work 
are conscientious and careful. 

Almost every community maintains some institution 
for paupers, usually a poorhouse or a county farm. Those 
capable of working should be compelled to contribute 
something toward their own support. Often poor farms 
are largely self-supporting. In some of these institutions 
the practical management is seriously defective and un- 
pardonably brutal. This is especially the case where the 
aged, the young, the blind, the insane, the feeble-minded, 
and the sick are herded together. 

234. Hospitals and Dispensaries. — Few persons are 
so deserving of sympathy and help as are the sick poor. 
Needing skilled care, delicate food, expensive medicines, 
or still more costly surgical attention, they are unable 



CHARITY 



307 



to afford the help that will save them from death or 
permanent invalidism. Public hospitals are maintained 
in most cities and by many counties and towns. At these 
institutions patients are treated free or at a small cost. 
Nevertheless, the work done is often of an especially high 




Open Air Corridor in a Hospital 

character, because very able physicians give a consider- 
able part of their time without charge. There are also 
resident physicians and nurses, who are paid by the 
public to look after the inmates. 

Visiting physicians may spend most of their time in Work of 
attendance on the needy sick in their own homes. Those 
whose ailments are not serious can often obtain free 
treatment at the dispensaries, which are to be found in 
most large cities. Almost all medical colleges maintain 
out-clinics, in which patients receive the best of treatment 
at a verv low cost. 

235. The Duty of Society to Its Needy Classes.— A 
society that is public-spirited is anxious not only to relieve 
poverty and needs of other kinds, but to reduce them. 



308 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



The 

problem 
of public 
relief or 
of united 
voluntary 
organiza- 
tion 



Remedy 
rather than 
relief de- 
sirable. 



Whether this work shall be done by the public directly 
through its government or by voluntary charitable or- 
ganizations depends upon many things. If a person is 
helpless on account of poverty, sickness, or other cause, 
the public should take care of him, unless some one of his 
family can do so. If the person is only partly helpless, or 
helpless only part of the time, voluntary charity organi- 
zations may be able to look after him. These charitable 
organizations should form a united welfare group. Other- 
wise, an undeserving person might secure help which he 
did not need or obtain assistance from several different 
charitable organizations. Many cities have established 
central bureaus for the registration of persons who need 
any form of relief. Many have " community chests," that 
is, common funds out of which all welfare expenses are 
paid through different organizations. 1 

For the immediate relief of many victims of industrial 
distress, we must depend chiefly on charity until we have 
shown, by education of individuals and the public, that 
poverty may be prevented to some extent. Of course, 
until the causes of poverty are removed, there can be no 
solution of the problem. It is difficult to "make over" 
human nature ; but it is possible to find real remedies for 
industrial troubles, through workingmen's compensation 
(§182), plans to reduce unemployment (§180), the mini- 
mum wage (§172), and mothers' pensions. 2 

Parks and Playgrounds 

236. Playgrounds — General. — "In 1890 there were in 
the United States one public playground, one public 

i The special advantage of the "community chest" is that it has 
only one "drive" for money each year. Each organization in the 
federation that shares in the benefits of this united work must have a 
budget (§ 253) of expenses, and this budget must be approved by a 
central finance committee. 

2 Many states now pay to needy widows a monthly sum according 
to the number of dependent children, in order that the children may be 
brought up in real homes. 



PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 



309 



swimming bath, no movies, and yet the schoolhouses were 
closed and the parks unhospitable. Commercialized 
amusements multiplied rapidly at the end of the nine- 
teenth century; public play began to be organized. Still 
the twentieth century inherited the superstition that play 
is the occupation of childhood." 1 

How different is the situation to-day ! We have already 
spoken of the play interests and activities of the boys and 
girls on the school ground before school and at recess 
(§§ 53-55). We have stressed the social value of this play 
in the development of healthy bodies (§103), and in the 
creation of a spirit of fairness and in the organization of 
teamwork or play it does not matter which word we use. 
There may be more school playgrounds than any other 
kind, but there are many others. In some cities they are 
open to the boys and girls of the neighborhood during 
practically all daylight hours; possibly they can be used 
evenings if properly lighted and supervised. 

In the larger cities, which have few vacant lots and in 
which several hundred people live on every acre of land, 
the streets are almost always crowded and some special 
places for play are desirable. A few cities have set aside 
small parks in congested districts, sometimes at very 
great cost. For example, Seward Park in the lower East 
Side of New York cost three million dollars, a sum greater 
than the entire park systems of many American com- 
munities. Unfortunately, most of our larger cities did not 
plan in advance to have breathing spaces in their more 
thickly settled residence districts. 

In some cities it has been necessary to construct play- 
grounds on the roofs of the buildings, especially school- 
houses, and on public wharves. Again New York City is 
the best example of a community that is seeking to pro- 
vide places of recreation for the multitudes who can not 
1 Zueblin, American Municipal Progress, 296. 



The situa- 
tion a third 
of a century 
ago. 



School 
playgrounds 
during 
school hours 
and at other 
times. 



Play parks 
for con- 
gested 
metropoli- 
tan dis- 
tricts. 



Playgrounds 
in unusual 
places. 



310 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Where play- 
grounds 
should be 
located. 



afford to go either to the seashore or to the country. 
Music is provided in some of these playgrounds, and some 
are well equipped with apparatus for exercise and games. 
237. A Typical City Playground. — A good playground 
should be well located. It should be in a residence dis- 
trict where there are plenty of children. The distance 
from the home of the child must not be so great that he 
is too tired for proper exercise after he arrives. Wherever 



Size and 
apparatus. 



Bathing 
facilities. 




A Public Playground 



possible a playground should be level. Use is often made 
of school grounds as playgrounds, because the school- 
houses are always near the homes of the children. 

A playground should be large enough to provide space 
for the children of that locality who wish to use it at any 
time. There ought to be room for the little children to 
play by themselves. Different kinds of apparatus should 
be provided in order to meet the needs of all ages. 

A large first-class playground should have a plunge. 
Unfortunately, it is not possible to provide all 
playgrounds with bathing facilities, or even with wading 
pools for the little folk. If there is a plunge, dressing 






PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 311 

rooms must be provided. A nominal fee is usually 
charged for the use of the water and the dressing rooms, 
but in some cities those who bring their own bathing 
suits are not asked to make any payment whatever. 

Most playgrounds should have room for games such Arrange- 

TTlPfit^ TOT* 

as croquet, tennis, handball, basket ball, and possibly games. 
baseball. It is impossible to provide playgrounds of this 
type in congested districts because land is valuable and 
the area required is large. 
238. Public Parks and Boulevards. — All cities have Character 

lot -. i ., of centrally 

parks, borne are large and some small; some are cen- located 
trally located, and some are situated in the suburbs. parks - 
As a rule the small parks are down town, because the 
park idea is new and land in the center of every city is 
expensive. Most commons of the New England towns 
and plazas of the old Spanish pueblos still exist as parks 
and are ordinarily near the heart of a city's activities. 
Most of them, however, are comparatively small and 
therefore of relatively little value as parks. Large parks 
are almost necessarily located in the outskirts of a city. 
Fairmount Park in Philadelphia and Central Park in New 
York are notable exceptions, land having been set aside 
for park purposes by those communities many years ago. 

Some of our largest cities have made a policy of locating Park and 
their larger parks in different parts of the city. Chicago systems, 
and Boston furnish good examples of that plan. In order 
that these parks may be used by those on horseback, 
they are provided with drives, bridle paths, and foot 
paths. As automobiles are far more common than horses, 
the drives now predominate. Many parks are connected 
by systems of boulevards, some of which are lined with 
trees and made beautiful with flowers and shrubbery in 
the center. In a few cities, it is possible to make the 
mtire circuit of the parks and boulevards without leaving 
ittractive drives. 



312 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Seaside 
parks. 



Parks on 
rivers or_ 
lakes or in 
natural 
valleys. 



Recrea- 
tional value 
of city 
parks 



239. Types of Parks and Recreation. — If land has 
been acquired before houses have been built in neighbor- 
ing districts, many of these outlying parks are large and 
attractive because of their natural beauty. Most of our 
best municipal parks are situated near the outskirts of 
the city. If the city is near the seashore, they may 
occupy some picturesque stretch of coast. Such a park 
gives opportunity for bathing and possibly for boating. 
By the construction of a short wharf, municipal bands 
may play to immense audiences that gather on the beach. 

Many cities are located on rivers. They are therefore 
able to utilize a ravine, valley, or other interesting spot 
which has little commercial value for business or residence. 
Most of these parks have beautiful streams, and some of 
them have good sized lakes. On level spots it is possible 
to provide courts for such games as have been named, for 
example, tennis and baseball. If parks are sufficiently 
large, municipal golf links are frequently installed, as is 
the case in at least sixty cities. Opportunities for bathers 
are ordinarily provided, possibly on the river front, 
or in some point on the lake, or possibly in an artificial 
plunge. If cleanliness is next to godliness, the spiritual 
standards of these communities should be high. 

Many city parks are well provided with other types of 
amusements. Three of our largest American cities con- 
tain wonderful zoological gardens, and almost all others 
have at least a few cages of birds and wild animals. For 
the children of the poor these parks and playgrounds have 
replaced to some extent the old playgrounds of dirty 
streets and dark alleys. They give room for sunshine, 
spontaneous play, and healthful sports. Together with 
the public swimming pools and bathhouses, their influence 
for health and cleanliness remakes many lives. Band 
concerts and other forms of amusement on Sundays and 
evenings attract large numbers of adults, for whom 






PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 313 

innocent amusement is as necessary as it is for children. 
To the multitudes whose days are spent in grinding toil, 
whose homes offer little or no attraction, whose vacations 
come as periods of enforced idleness when times are hard, 
the ever increasing number of parks and playgrounds 
are an inestimable blessing. 

240. City Planning. — Almost all European cities have General 
crooked and narrow streets, at least in the older parts, of Ameli- 
as some of our American cities had in their early days. can Clties> 
Most of our later American cities have been built on 
what might be called the checker board plan of streets, 
although the blocks are oblong instead of square. 
The main streets usually run in one direction and the 
cross or residence streets in another. 1 

In a few cities, notably Washington and Indianapolis, Diagonal 
important avenues or boulevards cut across this system contrasted 
of rectangular squares, making it possible to go to a ^anned. ^ 
corner of the city more directly than could be done with systems. 
a system of rectangular blocks alone. Many cities have 
left the location of streets largely to real estate dealers. 
In these communities there may be two or possibly a half 
dozen parallel streets in the center of the city, but, out- 
side these main thoroughfares, it is impossible to go easily 
from one part to another. 

Hills or valleys make a different arrangement of streets Winding 
necessary. To some extent streets should follow the hilly " 
formation of the ground, but should avoid the higher 
knolls and the deeper depressions. If land is sufficiently 
valuable the valleys can be filled and the knolls can be 
razed. In many communities the highest-priced prop- 
erty is located in these hilly districts, once thought suit- 
able only for pastures or cemeteries. The most beautiful 

1 Some cities designate the streets running in one direction by the 
name street and those running at right angles as avenues. Some of 
them go so far as to number the streets from the center and make use 
of the letters of the alphabet for at least one direction. 



localities. 



314 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 





PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 315 

section of the most beautiful city in America is of this 
type. 

As all cities are growing, they should plan for the Need oi 
future extension of streets and boulevards as well as ForTfuture 
parks. We ought to avoid the mistakes made by our 
fathers and grandfathers. There certainly is every 
reason why we should make our cities as beautiful as 
possible. Many experts believe that every city should 
purchase some land in outlying districts. In time the 
income from this property might greatly reduce the taxes 
necessary for the support of the city's activities. 

241. Civic Centers. — We hear a great deal about civic Need and 
centers. A large number of beautiful plans have been of civic 
constructed, but at present most civic centers are on paper. centers - 
Certainly it is desirable that the public buildings of any 
community should not be too widely scattered. If a 
courthouse is a mile from the city hall of that community, 
and the city hall another mile from the federal building, 
and the federal building a long distance from the hall of 
records or the public library, those who have business at 
more than one of these buildings are compelled to go an 
unreasonable distance and. therefore, to waste an im- 
mense amount of time. 

The plea of economy in time is not necessarily, how- Importance 

. , , . (. , . ,, . , and value 

ever, the cruel advantage of a center, because every com- of civic 
munity needs one. There should be some one place about 
which the more distinctively public or civic activities 
should be concentrated. By its dignity and by the 
beauty of the buildings that surround the central court or 
park, this place should represent the dignity and beauty 
of the community itself. Such a center is a matter of 
pride to the city within which it is located and it helps 
to develop the civic spirit 1 that a true community 
should have. 

i See §§ 298-300. 



centers. 



316 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

References 

1. New contributions to education. Atres, The Cleveland 
School Survey (Cleveland Education Survey), 64-80. 

2. What the schools teach and might teach. Ayres, The Cleve- 
land School Survey (Cleveland Education Survey), 118-136. 

3. Cincinnati's municipal university. Review of Reviews, 47 
(1913), 59-62. 

4. The public library and the public schools. Ayres, The 
Cleveland School Survey (Cleveland Education Survey), 293-303. 

5. The library and the public. Zueblin, American Municipal 
Progress, 230-240. 

^ 6. Causes of poverty. Towne, Social Problems, 290-301. 
\ 7. Dependent children. Mangold, Problems of Child Welfare, 
433-448. 

8. The blind. Towne, Social Problems, 161-173. 

9. New kind of county hospital. Dyer, W. A., World's Work, 
30 (1915), 605-609. 

10. Chicago recreation problem. Richards, J. R., American 
City, 13 (1915), 468-485. 

11. Playgrounds of a large city. Mangold, Problems of Child 
Welfare, 171-182. 

12. Public bathhouses and swimming pools. Gerhard, W. P., 
American City, 11 (1914) 357-367. 

13. Cleveland public parks. Haynes and Davies, Public Pro- 
vision for Recreation (Cleveland Recreation Survey), 127-149. 

*Ztjeblin, American Municipal Progress. 
*Towne, Social Problems. 

* Jennings, Watson, Meyer, and Thomas, Suggestions of 
Modern Science Concerning Education. 
*Dewey, Democracy and Education. 
*Warner, American Charities. 
* Annals of the American Academy, 37 (1911). 

Questions 

1. Why may public education be unnecessary in an autocracy? 
State ways in which public education is a means of self-preserva- 
tion in a democracy. Show what education does for us as indi- 
viduals, and why it should be compulsory for all members of any 
society. 

* Primarily for teachers. 



PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 317 

2. What general education should every citizen have? To what 
extent should training be given that will be directly valuable in the 
earning of a living? How much is it possible to teach him regarding 
how groups are organized, what rights and what duties each mem- 
ber of a group has, and how the member or the group can do its 
work better? What should be the content of a good citizenship or 
civics course? What kind of citizenship work can be given below 
the high school? 

3. What different types of schools are included within the 
school system of this community and state? How are the country 
schools of this vicinity organized? If you are living in a city, ex- 
plain the school system, giving number of members of the Board of 
Education, names of at least two, term of office, and manner in 
which they are chosen. Give the name and the method of appoint- 
ment of the superintendent. 

4. What are the qualifications of teachers for the high schools 
in this city or state? Summarize the courses offered in the first 
six years of the school system, in the seventh and eighth grades, 
and in the four years or last three years of the high school. 

5. Name personal causes of poverty. Mention several ways in 
which our modern industrial system leads to poverty. 

6. Why must society do something for the child that has no 
home of his own (a) for its own protection and (6) for the sake of the 
child? What should it do for the child who is mentally defective as 
well as homeless? If he is physically defective, how can society 
help him to become a better and more useful citizen? 

7. How is a pauper different from a partially destitute person? 
What is meant by outdoor aid? What can be done for the sick poor? 
In a public hospital what classes of patients should be treated free? 
Summarize ways in which poverty and other forms of need may be 
relieved. WTiat causes of poverty may be removed, and how may 
the remedy be applied in each case? 

8. What was the play situation in the United States a third of a 
century ago? Why should there be numerous public playgrounds? 
Are the school grounds of this city properly utilized for play after 
school hours? Are there other grounds suitable for games? If not, 
what do the boys and girls do after school? 

9. WTiat are the names of our city parks, and where is each 
located? Give some idea of the play or amusement opportunities 
of those which are near the school. How should a park be im- 
proved, and what should be its value to the general public? What 



318 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

is a zoological garden? What is a park system? Why is it neces- 
sary to consider boulevards in the making of park systems? 

10. What do you understand by a civic center? Name three or 
four buildings that should be included in a civic center. Aside from 
economy of time, effort, and money, what are some of the advan- 
tages of a first-class civic center? Contrast civic centers with the 
social centers described in § 299. 



CHAPTER XIX 

FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF GOVERNMENT 

Financial obligations of the citizen 

1. Government expenditures and property rights 

a. Why the national government needs money 

b. War expenditures of the national government 

c. Purposes for which local governments spend money 

d. The basis of public taxation 

2. Public revenue 

a. General source of national revenue 

b. National income, business, and other taxes 

c. National and state corporation taxes 

d. Inheritance taxes 

e. General property tax 
/. Issuance of bonds 

3. Financial methods and problems 

a. The budget 

b. The financial problem 

242. Financial Obligations of the Citizen. — All gov- Responsi- 
ernments need money. It is a notorious fact that democ- taxes. 
racies are extravagant, largely because the persons who 
decide the tax rate pay little themselves and do not have 
a proper sense of responsibility in keeping taxes low. 
Undoubtedly great injustice has been done by some of 
our taxes, which have compelled poor people to pay 
relatively large sums, although some rich people have 
escaped with comparatively small amounts. 

What constitutes a just tax we shall consider briefly, Why wealth 

£j _ i i , , (. , ,. is a social 

alter we have made some study of government expendi- trust. 
tures and of the attitude of the public toward the prop- 
erty from which most of the revenues of government must 

319 



320 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Increase of 
peace ex- 
penditures. 



Extraor- 
dinary ex- 
penditures 
of Uncle 
Sam. 



Ways in 
which 
money is 
spent. 



come. If it is true that he who has much owes more 
than does he who has little, then the person who has 
property should pay more than another person in similar 
circumstances, but without property. That is, a person 
owes something solely because of the property that he 
possesses. He is under obligation to society to see that 
this property is used wisely and well (§155), and he owes 
to society a part of the income from this property (§154). 
In a true sense, he is a steward to whom wealth has been 
entrusted, temporarily. Only by the help of society did 
he or his ancestors acquire it; only by the consent of 
society does he hold it. This wise and proper use of his 
wealth is. a social obligation. 

Government Expenditures and Property Rights 

243. Why the National Government needs Money. — 

Before the Civil War, the national government never 
spent as much as one hundred million dollars a year, even 
in time of war. A quarter century ago we had the first 
billion dollar Congress, when the national legislature ap- 
propriated that sum during its two year session. Since 
the World War, our annual appropriations have aggre- 
gated not several hundred millions, but several billions. 
Although it is true that a dollar will not buy as much 
as it did a generation ago, nevertheless, our national gov- 
ernment is unnecessarily wasteful and extravagant. The 
extraordinary increase of expenditure, however, has been 
due less to the actual need of spending large amounts of 
money than to the possibility of raising vast sums with- 
out great difficulty. 

244. War Expenditures of the National Government. 
— From the financial standpoint the national government 
is chiefly a war agency. By this we mean that most of 
its expenditures are due to past wars, to actual expenses 
connected with recent conflicts, or to work that is being 



EXPENDITURES AND PROPERTY RIGHTS 321 

done apparently, if not actually, for the purpose of pre- 
venting future wars. In the year 1919-1920 ninety-three 
per cent of all the money spent by Uncle Sam through 
his national government was for these purposes. 

Most of the public debts of the world are war debts, Military 
although before 1914 a fair percentage of the public costs. 
debts of France, Germany, and some other European 
countries was due to improvements such as railroads and 
canals. In time of war the cost of feeding and equipping 
troops is one of the largest items; it is even in excess of 
the amount paid to the men for their services. Much 
food is wasted, and the high cost of transporting goods to 
camps or to the war front adds greatly to the expense. . 
Naval vessels, war materials, including munitions and 
other necessaries, factories needed for the making of war 
goods, and ships for their transportation are among the 
items that amount to vast sums. 

245. Purposes for Which Local Governments spend items of 
Money.— -In time of peace the ordinary expenses of state expense, 
and local governments have been heavier than those of 
the national government. 1 Schools can not be main- 
tained without money for buildings, as well as for pay- 
ment of the salaries of teachers. The salaries of public 
officials constitute an important item, since more than two 
million people are engaged in the administration of 
state and local affairs. The great expense of a police 
force, police courts, and buildings for the imprisonment of 
criminals shows that a high price must be paid for the 
preservation of order, especially in cities. Public chari- , 
ties of different types and kinds necessarily require 
considerable outlay, as do the preservation of health and 
the protection of buildings from fire. 

Public improvements call for large expenditures. 
These may be paid by the general public of the locality 

i That is, before 1917. 



322 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



The financ- 
ing of gen- 
eral and 
local im- 
provements. 



The public 
and prop- 
erty. 



How the 
public may 
take prop- 
erty it 
needs. 



The right 
of the 
public to 
forced con- 
tributions 
or taxes. 



for which the improvement is made, if the improvement is 
general, as in the case of a bridge, a trunk sewer, or a city 
park. Heavy and unusual expenditures of this kind are 
financed by the sale of bonds (§252). The cost of more 
distinctively local improvements are paid by special 
assessments, levied on the owners of the property that is 
especially benefited. 

246. The Basis of Public Taxation. — Before we con- 
sider the character of different taxes in the United States, 
let us notice the relation of the public toward wealth in 
the form of property, since taxes must be levied chiefly 
on property or income. 

Private property may be taken for public use in many 
ways. If a new street must be established or a railway 
constructed, one owner of the land that is necessary for 
its completion may not block the whole project by refus- 
ing to sell. His property is taken under the legal right of 
eminent domain. 1 

A tax is a forced contribution by members of society to 
its support. In the case of taxation, private property or 
wealth in the form of income may be taken for public 
purposes without the direct consent of the owners of that 
wealth. The government insists that we shall pay the 
taxes needed by the public even if the work done by any 
government injures us as much as it benefits us personally. 
It is evident that the money for the expenses of any 
government must come from those who can pay rather 
than from those who can not. A just tax should 
therefore be levied according to the ability of a man 
to pay. 

1 If an owner is willing to sell but places an exorbitant price on his 
property, the courts appoint experts who decide what amount should 
be paid for the land, or what sum should be offered as damages for 
injury to other property which is not taken. When a street is to be 
improved, the government again steps in and makes a special assess- 
ment on all propery which is supposed to be benefited by the street 
improvement. 



PUBLIC REVENUE 



323 



Public Revenue 

247. General Source of National Revenue.— The na- £jf r ^ r e e s nt of 
tional government has raised most of its revenue from taxes national 

income 

on business and incomes. During our early history we 
depended chiefly on a tax upon imports, known as customs 
duties. Since the Civil War we have depended prac- 
tically as much upon internal revenue, chiefly excise 




New York Custom House 

taxes upon the manufacture of liquor and tobacco. In 
times of war other internal revenue taxes are used exten- 
sively. Since the adoption of the sixteenth amendment, 
in 1913, the income tax has been one of the government's 
chief sources of revenue. During recent years immense 
sums have been provided by taxes upon corporations and 
upon the excess profits or upon the special war profits of 
business. 



324 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

Use of cus- About half of the commodities brought into the United 

as protec- States have not paid any duty whatever. Upon the other 

tive tariffs. ^if ^ e rates have usually been from twenty-five to fifty 

per cent of the value of the goods. As the rates are levied 

chiefly to protect American industries, we speak of the 

duty as forming a protective tariff (§166). The duties are 

not really paid by the importers but by the persons who 

buy the goods. If duties are collected, therefore, chiefly 

upon necessities, an unnecessarily heavy burden is placed 

upon those who can least afford to pay such a tax. 

Problems The duties are collected at ports of entry on the borders 

duties. of this country. There is some smuggling, especially on 

the part of the travelers who object to paying duty on 

articles purchased abroad. Importers sometimes seek to 

evade the customs laws by very greatly undervaluing 

goods. If detected, they are obliged to pay a heavy penalty. 

income 248. National Income, Business, and Other Taxes. — 

recent During the Civil War national taxes were levied upon 

years. incomes. 1 When the sixteenth amendment was passed, 

a small income tax of from one to seven per cent was 

first levied upon incomes over four thousand dollars. 2 

Later, the rates were raised, and, after we entered the 

World War, they were extended very much more. At one 

time there was paid on net incomes of more than two 

thousand dollars 3 a tax from six per cent to seventy-- 

seven per cent. 

important National excise taxes have been particularly heavy 

upon distilled liquors. Since the enactment of the 

eighteenth amendment, prohibiting the manufacture of 

alcoholic liquors throughout the United States, this tax 

has not been an important source of revenue. The tax 

upon tobacco has brought in a large revenue since its 

iAt the close of the Civil War the rate was five per cent on incomes 
from six hundred dollais to five thousand dollars and ten per cent on 
incomes of more than five thousand dollars. 

2The exemption for unmarried persons was only three thousand dollars. 

^Single persons one thousand dollars. 



PUBLIC REVENUE 



325 



first enactment at the time of the Civil War. These 
taxes upon luxuries are paid by the consumer. 

249. National and State Corporation Taxes. — In recent 
years the national government has levied different kinds 
of corporation taxes. In a brief space it is impossible to 
describe them, because there have been numerous changes, 
and others are likely to be made. During recent years, 
however, considerable use has been made of the general 
corporation tax and of fairly high taxes upon profits, due 
to the World War or to other special causes. These taxes 
are usually shifted by the corporations to the consumer. 
They were partly responsible for the extraordinary 
increase in prices which occurred during the war and the 
period immediately following it. 

Many states are now seeking, through a tax on cor- 
porations, to reach stocks and bonds that formerly escaped 
taxation. Since much of our present wealth is created by 
industry through corporations, it has seemed fair that 
corporations should pay their full share. However, if 
private corporations are taxed severely by one state and 
not by others, they naturally will move to a state that 
does not tax them heavily. Public service corporations 
(§162), which receive numerous privileges from the 
public, are expected to pay a larger percentage of their 
revenues [than ordinary corporations, which presumably 
do not have such advantages. 

250. Inheritance Taxes. — Most of the state govern- 
ments make use of inheritance taxes, but inheritance 
taxes are also levied at times by the national government. 
In theory the rates upon bequests or inheritances should 
be higher than those upon incomes, because the person 
who earns an income has a better right to it than the 
legatee has to a bequest. As the inheritance taxes are 
usually state taxes, 1 in contrast to the income tax, which 

iAt the present time there is a national inheritance tax. 



Different 
kinds of 
corporation 
taxes 



State 'taxes 
on public 
service and 
private 
corpora- 
tions. 



Nature ol 
and objec- 
tion to in- 
heritance 

taxes. 



326 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Why the 
inheritance 
rates are 
progressive. 



is chiefly a national tax, 1 it is impossible for one state 
to raise its rates very high without driving to other states 
those of its citizens who object to leaving a large percent- 
age of their wealth to the public. In these days it is easy 
for a rich man to have houses in different places; he can 
therefore claim legal residence in the state which takes 
least of his wealth year by year or at his death. 




Copyright, Underwood and Underwood 

Citizens Paying Taxes 

Few, if any, of the states require a tax to be paid upon 
small bequests to a wife, a husband, or a child. But if 
the bequest is large, or the legatee is not closely related 
to the deceased, a fair percentage of the amount must be 
paid into the state treasury. In other words, the tax is 
often progressive; i. e. the rate increases with the amount 
of the bequest or the lack of relationship between the 
deceased and the legatee. 

1 Some states have had and still have income taxes. 



PUBLIC REVENUE 327 

251. General Property Tax. — More than four fifths of importance 

-* ■'*: and nature 

the revenue of our local governments comes from the of the gen- 
general property tax. Theoretically, this is a tax levied erty tax P " 
upon everything that possesses value. One part of the 
tax is assessed upon real estate, that is, lands and houses, 
the other upon personal property, including household 
furniture, farm implements, horses, and cattle. 

It is difficult to assess real estate over a large area Difficulties 
because it will be assessed higher in one district than the general 
in another. The greatest difficulty in using the gen-' tax. Per y 
eral property tax, however, is the assessment of personal 
property. It is not easy to find and assess such intangible 
property as stocks and bonds. Under the general property 
tax many rich people do not pay their share of taxation. 

252. Issuance of Bonds. — The cost of public improve- issuance 
ments, including the construction of utilities such as locai bonds, 
water systems (§163), is not paid out of current revenues, 

but through the sale of bonds. These bonds run for 
long periods of time and draw comparatively low rates 
of interest. They can not be issued whenever a municipal 
council or commission desires. If the governing body of 
a city has approved the issuance of bonds, an election is 
held in which the people are asked to approve or dis- 
approve the proposed indebtedness. Usually a three 
fifths or two thirds vote is required before bonds may be 
issued. 

During the World War, immense quantities of Liberty Results of 
Bonds were purchased by a patriotic public. The rates Bond 
of interest were low, from 3J to 4J per cent, but each dnves - 
issue was larger than the preceding and was subscribed 
by a greater number of persons. 

Financial Methods and Problems 

253. The Budget. — As stated above, popular govern- 
ments have always been extravagant, largely because what 



328 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Extrava- 
gance of 
democracies. 



Failure to 
maintain a 
balance 
between the 
national 
income and 
expendi- 
tures. 



Control of 
the budget. 



General 
problems 
of finance. 



is everybody's business is nobody's business. Since the 
public pays the bills, officials who may be in office for 
only two, three, or four years are not as economical as 
they might be. Sometimes they have had more money 
than they needed; again they have spent more than they 
had. 

Until 1921 Congress followed a plan of raising revenue 
through one committee, called the Committee on Ways 
and Means, and of spending it through a very large 
number of appropriation committees. Usually the 
appropriation committees did not try to learn how much 
revenue there would be, nor was it possible for the Com- 
mittee on Ways and Means to know exactly how much 
money would be required for governmental expenditures. 
In consequence, the amount that was raised and the 
amount that was spent did not balance. There was 
usually a fair surplus or a large deficit. In 1921 Congress 
adopted a plan for a budget. 

In recent years it has been suggested that a single 
group of persons find out how much money is needed, and 
arrange for raising just that amount. This same group 
has also been asked to watch the expenditure of those 
funds, in order that each department should have the 
amount that it needed, and that the money should be 
spent in the best possible way. The name budget is 
given to the account showing these items of governmental 
cost and of income. 

254. The Financial Problem. — These problems which 
we have just considered are concerned with the amount 
of revenue or with a balance between the public income 
and the public expenditures. The first duty of any govern- 
ment is to spend wisely and economically what is needed, 
and no more. The second is to see that it has sufficient 
revenue, no more and no less. A third is to find the best 
sources from which that money can be raised. If the tax 



FINANCIAL METHODS AND PROBLEMS 329 

system of a country assesses the poor man almost as 
heavily as it taxes a wealthy person, that system is poor. 
The public revenues of that country are probably very 
low, and can be increased with difficulty. 

The financial problem of any government may be due Example 
to poor organization of the government itself, or to bad ganization 
management of the political affairs of the city, county, manage- 
state, or country. If any piece of work to be done by a ment - 
government is distributed among a half dozen different 
administrative boards or departments, none of which has 
absolute control of any particular part of the work, 
waste and extravagance necessarily result. For example, 
if a city government allows each separate department to 
do its own buying, the materials will be poorer and more 
costly than they would under businesslike methods. To 
get the best results, cities employ expert buyers who 
know their business and who are well organized into a 
department of supplies. 

With most governments, the greatest waste of all is Waste in 
usually a human one. Most American governments are from public 
careless in the selection of their employees. They do not emp oyees - 
get a day's work for a day's pay. In spite of the fact 
that many public officials and administrators are over- 
worked and really earn a much larger salary than they 
receive, the ordinary man or woman who draws money 
from a public treasury does less for his pay than does a 
person in a similar position with a private corporation. 

The frequent changes in our administrations, national Need to 
and local, and the frequent changes in the form of our the future. 
city governments, make taxes heavy and public debts 
large. Our city fathers do not look far ahead ; they plan 
chiefly for the present. More frequently they do to-day 
the things that should have been done yesterday, things 
that cost too much because they were not done when 
needed. When the rulers of any community plan five, 



330 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

ten, or fifteen years in advance, they are accused of being 

visionary and of incurring needless expense. Public 

officials ought to be encouraged to use foresight; the 

public needs to be educated to give this encouragement. 

We need more wise leadership, more expert advice, and 

more willingness to follow the ■ advice of those who 

know. 

References 

1. Where our taxes go and why. Houston, D. F., World's 
Work, 42 (1921), 480-487. 

2. State expenditures and revenues. Holcombe, State Govern- 
ment in the United States, 308-315. 

3. Expenditures of cities. Beard, American City Government, 
143-157. 

4. Collecting money for Uncle Sam. Marriott, Uncle Sam's 
Business, 109-118. 

5. Secret Service stunts that spoiled some wily Hunnish plans. 
Literary Digest, 62 (Aug. 16, 1919), 62-70. 

6. City revenues. Howe, The City, the Hope of Democracy, 
262-279. 

7. Congressional extravagance. Reinsch, Readings on Amer- 
ican Federal Government, 355-361. 

8. The pork barrel. Burton, T. E., World's Work, 25 (1913), 
438-443. 

9. The city budget. Munro, Principles and Methods of Munic- 
ipal Administration, 446-460. 

10. City income and the future. Howe, The Modern City and 
Its Problems, 346-366. 

*Plehn, Introduction to Public Finance. 
* Adams, The Science of Finance, 434-564. 

*Bullock (ed.), Selected Readings in Public Finance, 1-92, 193- 
253, .280-306, 337-395, 425-584. 

Questions 

1. Why are democracies likely to be extravagant? If a person 
were entitled to every bit of wealth he could get together, how 
would a government get necessary revenues? 

2. Show how our national expenditures have grown. Explain 

*Primarily for teachers. 



FINANCIAL METHODS AND PROBLEMS 331 

what "war expenses" we have. Should war expenditure be 
decreased? If so, how can it be done? 

3. Name some of the items for which local governments expend 
money. What return does this community get for the money that 
is expended for schools or other governmental activities? Give 
examples of some of the public improvements of this community, 
and find out what one of them cost. Describe a special assessment. 

4. Why and how may private property be taken for public use? 
What is meant by the right of eminent domain? Define the term 
"tax." Upon whom should a just tax be levied? 

5. To what extent has the tax upon imports furnished the 
revenue for the national government? In what respect are customs 
duties satisfactory? In what respect are they objectionable? 
Explain the process of collecting duties and show why there is 
smuggling and undervaluing of goods. 

6. What is an income tax? What part of an income is now 
exempt from taxation? What rate must be paid upon a small 
income of less than five thousand dollars? Find out what the rate 
is on more than one million dollars a year. Explain advantages and 
disadvantages of the income tax. 

7. What do you understand by an excise tax? Name two that 
have been used most of the time for the last half century. Name 
and describe some national corporation taxes. What is meant by a 
state tax upon public service corporations? To what extent are 
either public service corporations or private corporations taxed in 
this state? 

8. What is meant by a bequest? What is a legatee? Why 
should the tax rates upon bequests be higher than those upon 
incomes? Explain a progessive rate of tax. In what respects are 
the income rates usually progressive? State objections to high rates 
on any special state tax. Give the present rates of the national 
inheritance tax and of the inheritance tax of this state. 

9. Describe the general property tax. Why is it difficult to 
assess some kinds of personal property? What groups pay more 
than their share under the general property tax? What is a bond? 
Under what circumstances may a city issue bonds? Tell about the 
Liberty Bonds issued during the World War. What are thrift 
stamps? 

10. What is the Committee on Ways and Means? Would it be 
better to have one committee to spend money and a dozen to raise 
it than to have one to raise it and a dozen to spend it? Why should 
there be a balance between the amount that is raised and the amount 



332 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

that is spent? What do you understand by a budget? Does our 
local government use a budget? 

11. Name three financial duties of any government. Show how 
poor organization of government may make taxes high. Give three 
examples of bad management, showing how money is wasted by 
government. Explain why an unnecessary amount of money is 
spent for the employees of most city governments. How can a 
community plan wisely for the future? How can a civics class help 
a little in working out this problem? 




CHAPTER XX 

ORGANIZATION OF OUR GOVERNMENTS 

1. The national government 

a. The national Constitution 
6. The organization of Congress 

c. The powers of Congress 

d. Special powers of the separate houses 

e. The election of a President 
/. Powers of the President 

g. The cabinet 

h. The national judiciary 

2. State and county government 

a. The state constitution 

b. The state legislature 

c. The work of the state legislature 

d. The state executive 

e. The state courts 

/. County government 

3. City government 

a. The charter 

b. Forms of municipal government 

(1) Mayor and council type 

(2) Commission government in cities 

(3) The city manager form 

c. Elective officials and elections 

d. Appointive officials and boards 

The National Government 

255. The National Constitution. — Before the Revolu- Deveiop- 
tionary War broke out in 1775, the colonies had been American 
separate and had been controlled separately by the mon * 
British government. Before the war they had acted 
together in a number of congresses. During the war 
they were compelled to act in concert because, as Benjamin 
Franklin said, "We must all hang together, or we shall 

333 



334 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



PC""' 



i 



Meeting of 
the consti- 
tutional 
convention 

(1787). 



Compro- 
mises in 
the consti- 
tutional 
convention. 



m 










Preamble of 

all hang separately." In 1776, as united colonies, they 
declared their independence of Great Britain, and in 
1781 they organized a regular union under the Articles of 
Confederation. This union did not bind the states close 
together and was unsuccessful. In 1787, therefore, a 
convention met and drafted a new Constitution for the 
United States of America. 

The constitutional convention met in Philadelphia. 
There were fifty-five members in all, but, of the forty- 
two who were present on the last day, only thirty-nine 
signed the Constitution. Although the convention was 
a small body, it included some very able men. Among 
the delegates were George Washington, James Madison, 
and Benjamin Franklin. 1 

There was a decided difference of opinion among the 
delegates regarding a number of important matters. The 
large states wanted representation in both houses of 
Congress according to population; the small states in- 
sisted on equal representation. The problem was settled 
by allowing each to have two members in the upper 
house of Congress, the Senate, and representation accord- 
ing to population in the lower house. 2 

i Other delegates present were Alexander Hamilton, Roger Sherman, 
James Wilson, the two Morrises of Pennsylvania, and the two Pinckneys 
of South Carolina. 

2 Other compromises dealt with the counting of negroes for taxation 
and representation. In the second compromise it was agreed that five 
negroes should be counted as three whites. The third compromise 
provided that exports should not be taxed and that the slave trade 
should not continue after 1808. 



THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 



335 







the Constitution 



Before the convention adjourned, it adopted a Consti- 
tution, the same one that we have to-day, without the 
amendments. It was necessary for nine states to ratify 
this document before it went into effect. In order that it 
might be changed, methods of amendment were arranged. 
Nineteen amendments have been adopted under the fol- 
lowing plan: amendments are proposed by two thirds 
of each house of Congress and ratified by the legislatures 
in three fourths of the states. 1 

256. The Organization of Congress. — Congress is 
made up of a Senate and a House of Representatives. 
The Senate is composed of two members from each state, 
elected by the voters for a term of six years. 2 The 
Senate is a continuous body, because only one third of 
the senators are elected at any one time. 

The lower house of Congress, the House of Repre- 
sentatives, consists of four hundred and thirty-five 
members, popularly known as congressmen. They are 
elected by the voters, for terms of two years each, from 
districts into which the states are divided according to 
population. The congressional elections for both senators 
and representatives occur on the Tuesday after the first 
Mondajr of November in the even-numbered years. 

1 Amendments may also be proposed by a national convention called 
by two thirds of the states. Any amendment may also be ratified by 
state conventions in three fourths of the states if that plan is desired 
by Congress. 

2 Before the seventeenth amendment was adopted in 1913, the 
senators were elected by the state legislatures, not by the people. 



Ratification 
and amend- 
ment of 
the Con- 
stitution. 



Composi- 
tion of the 
Senate. 



Composi- 
tion of the 
House of 
Represen- 
tatives. 



Long and 
short ses- 
sions of 
Congress. 



General 
legislative 
powers of 
Congress. 



336 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



The term of office for a member of Congress begins on 
the fourth of March following the election, 1 but the 
regular sessions 2 of Congress do not begin until the first 
Monday in December. The first session of any new 
Congress is a long one, usually lasting into the following 
summer or autumn. The second session is always short, 
because the old Congress ceases to exist on the fourth of 





.'■> ::: ------. 



Copyright, Harris and Ewino 

The National Capitol at Washington 

March; it therefore expires by limitation at the end of; 
three months. 

257. The Powers of Congress. — Since Congress is the 
national legislature or lawmaking body of the United 
States, it has very extensive powers. It can not use, 
however, any power that it pleases, for the Constitution 
of the United States enumerates eighteen classes of powers 

i A new Congress begins on the fourth of March every two years. 
Congresses have been numbered consecutively, beginning in 1789. The 
present Congress (1922) is the sixty-seventh. 

2 Special sessions of Congress are called by the President. Special 
sessions of the Senate are always held immediately after the inaugura- 
tion of a new President to ratify appointments. 



THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 



337 



which it may exercise. One of these, however, is embodied 
in the elastic clause which gives to Congress power "to 
make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all 
other powers vested by this Constitution in the govern- 
ment of the United States, or in any department or officer 
thereof." 

One of the most necessary and important powers of a 
legislative body is that of raising revenue. Congress has 
the right to levy duties, excises, income taxes, and some 
other forms of taxes. It also has the right to borrow 
money on the credit of the United States. This is usually 
done in the form of loans. Congress controls all commerce 
with foreign nations or among the several states. The 
states are not allowed to regulate either international or 
interstate commerce. 

Congress has very important war powers, which are 
denied to the states. It may declare war, has authority 
to raise an army, largely supervises the militia or national 
ruard, and otherwise looks after the war interests of the 
country. Congress has territorial powers because it 
admits new states, controls the seat of the national govern- 
ment, the District of Columbia, and governs all territory 
that is controlled by the United States, Territory is 
usually annexed by treaty, but in two instances it has been 
acquired by the joint action of the two houses of Con- 
gress. 1 On these subjects and some others Congress has 
the right to make laws 

258. Special Powers of the Separate Houses. — Each 
house of Congress has special powers. The Senate helps 
the President make treaties; the consent of two thirds of 
the Senate is necessary in order that a treaty shall be 
ratified and therefore be valid. When the President 

1 Among other powers which Congress possesses are those to make 
laws on naturalization and bankruptcy, to coin money, to establish 
post offices, and to issue patents and copyrights. 



Financial 
and com- 
mercial 
powers. 



Military 
and terri- 
torial 
powers. 



Special 
powers of 
the Senate. 



338 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Special 
powers of 
the House. 



Nomination 
of presiden- 
tial candi- 
dates. 



Popular and 
electoral 
elections of 
President. 



appoints an official, the appointment must be approved 
by the Senate. 1 

The House of Representatives has the right to propose 
all bills for raising revenue. When the electoral college 
fails to choose a President, the House selects one from the 
three presidential candidates having the largest vote. 2 

259. The Election of a President. — The Constitution 
was made before even most of the state governors were 
elected by popular vote. Technically, therefore, the 
President is elected not by the people, but by electors 
who are chosen by the voters of the country. Presidential 
elections occur every fourth year, which happens to be all 
years divisible by four. In the spring of a presidential year, 
each political party ( §205) elects, usually in primaries (§208) , 
delegates to a national nominating convention. The nomi- 
nating conventions are usually held in June and number 
about one thousand members each. Each convention selects 
party candidates for the presidency and vice presidency 
and, in addition, adopts a platform of its principles or policies. 

A popular election occurs on the Tuesday after the 
first Monday in November. The voters do not vote for 
the President or Vice President, but cast their ballots for 
electors, equal in number to the senators and represen- 
tatives from their state. A majority of these electors 
must vote for any candidate for President or Vice 
President before that person is elected to the office for 
which he is nominated. The electors meet in their 
respective state capitals in January and cast the ballots, 
now five hundred and thirty-one in number, which elect 
the President. 

1 When the electoral college fails to select a Vice President, the 
Senate chooses one of the two candidates who has the highest electoral 
vote. If the House of Representatives impeaches a public official, 
the trial occurs before the Senate, and no person is convicted except 
upon a two thirds vote. 

2 If a national official is guilty of high crimes or misdemeanors in 
office, he may be impeached in the House of Representatives. Im- 
peachment is only an accusation made against him charging that he is 
guilty of such offenses. 



THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 



339 





340 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Military, 
administra- 
tive, and 
foreign 
powers. 



Legislative 
powers. 



Members, 
position, 
and work of 
the cabinet. 



260. Powers of the President.— The President is the 
chief executive of the United States. He therefore has 
the chief civil authority within the country. He appoints 
personally, with the help of the Senate, nearly fifteen 
thousand important officials, and indirectly he is respon- 
sible for the appointment of several hundred thousand 
others. 1 He supervises the administration and enforce- 
ment of all national laws. He is commander-in-chief of the 
army and navy. The President has absolute control of 
foreign affairs, although he always deals with foreign 
countries through the Secretary of State (§309). 

If Congress passes a bill, the President has the right to 
sign it, to leave it without a signature, in which case it 
becomes a law at the end of ten days, or to veto it. If he 
exercises the power of veto, a bill does not become a law 
unless Congress passes it over the veto by a two thirds 
vote in each house. He may call special sessions of 
Congress and may send to that body general or special 
messages regarding affairs that he favors. 2 

261. The Cabinet. — The President is aided by a group 
of ten prominent officials who make up the cabinet. 3 As 
a body they advise him regarding general policies that it 
is wise for him to follow, but the policies are his and not 
those of the cabinet. At present the cabinet is made up 
of ten members, including the secretaries of the Depart- 
ments of State, Treasury, War, Navy, Interior, Agricul- 
ture, Commerce, and Labor. The Postmaster-General 
and Attorney-General are also members of the cabinet. 
As individuals these officials are heads of their respective 
departments and have almost complete charge of the 
work done within those departments. 

ri Most of the national officials secure office through the Civil Service 
Commission. In some cases other candidates for office are obliged to 
take civil service examinations. 

2 Washington, Adams, Wilson, and Harding addressed Congress in 
person instead of sending messages. 

3 The Vice President now meets with the cabinet. Vice President 
Coolidge sits at the foot of the cabinet table. 






THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 



341 






266. The National Judiciary. — The national courts Composi- 
consist of one Supreme Court, nine Circuit Courts of national 
Appeals, and many District Courts. The Supreme Court cour s * 
has nine judges, one of whom is called chief justice. The 
judges of the Circuit Courts of Appeals at present num- 
ber thirty-three and there are now one hundred and four 
district judges. All national judges are appointed for good 
behavior; that is, they are practically appointed for life. 




Copyright, Harris and Exoing 
Brandeis Pitney McReynolds Clarke 

Day McKenna Taft (C. J.) Holmes Van Devanter 

The Justices of the Supreme Court (1921) 

The national courts look after all cases that arise under Jurisdiction 
the Constitution, the national laws, or the treaties. They national 
also take charge of cases in which the parties to the suit 
are states, citizens of different states, or one party of 
which is a citizen of a foreign country. ' 

State and County Government 

263. The State Constitution. — Each of the forty-eight 
states is a member of the Union. As such, it is practically 



342 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



The states 
and their 
constitu- 
tions. 



Some fea- 
tures of 
state con- 
stitutions. 



Composi- 
tion of the 
houses of a 
state legis- 
lature. 



How a bill 
becomes a 
law. 



self-governing, except for the matters controlled by the 
national government. Since the governmental work of 
the states and localities is very important, each state has 
a written constitution like that of the nation. Each 
constitution has been made by a constitutional conven- 
tion and has been ratified by the voters of the state. 

A constitution describes the central government of the 
state, which we call the state government, and outlines the 
main features of the government within the counties and 
other localities. The qualifications of voters are defined 
in the state constitutions, although the fifteenth and nine- 
teenth amendments of the United States Constitution 
make manhood and woman suffrage universal through- 
out the Union. 

264. The State Legislature. — All state legislatures are 
made up of two houses. The upper house is always called 
the Senate. Usually it is small. Its members are chosen 
for a longer term than are the members of the lower 
house. Some of the lower houses are quite large. Mem- 
bers are usually chosen for terms of two years each. 
Elections occur in November and the legislatures usually 
meet the following January. 1 

The first form of a law is a bill. A bill may be intro- 
duced in either house by a member of that house. It 
must be read three times. In the newer states it must be 
submitted to a committee and reported back by the 
committee before it is considered again by that house. 
In the older legislatures and in Congress, bills are usually 
sent to committees, but there is no law requiring that a 
bill shall be "committed." A bill is passed in Congress 
and in the older legislatures by a majority of those 
present. In many of the newer states, however, a majority 
of those elected is required before a bill is sent to the other 
house. After a bill has been approved by both houses, 

1 In some states there is a short session, in which bills are introduced, 
a recess, and then a second session in which bills are passed. 



STATE AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT 



343 



the governor, like the president (§260), may sign it, or 
leave it without his signature, usually' for ten days, after 
which time it becomes a law, or he may veto it. After 
a bill has been vetoed, it does not usually become a 




State Capitol, Atlanta, Georgia 

law unless it secures the assent of two thirds of each 
house of the legislature. 1 

265. The Work of the State Legislature.— The legis- ^^ t m_ 
latures overshadow the rest of our system of state govern- subjects on 
ment, since a legislature may make laws upon all subjects are made, 
that are not expressly and exclusively granted to the 
American Congress, or denied by the national Constitu- 

1 In most of the states a two thirds majority is required, but in one 
or two no special majority is necessary. Either a governor or the 
President can veto a bill at the close of a session simply by failing to 
sign it. If Congress adjourns within the ten days, or the legislature 
adjourns within the ten or thirty days which the constitutions allow 
for the signature of the executive, a bill fails to become a law unless it 
is signed. This is called the pocket veto. 



344 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



The state 
governor. 



tion or by the constitution of the state to the legislature. 
All general laws under which our local governments and 
schools are organized, those referring to the state and 
local courts and procedure in these courts, those dealing 
with the making and enforcement of contracts, with the 
transfer of property, with marriage and divorce, with the 
prevention and spread of diseases, with the incorporation 
of business houses — all of these form only a part of the 




Assembly Chamber, Capitol, Albany, New York 

vast number under the charge of the legislatures. The 
whole covers a set of subjects of the first importance 
not only because they are so numerous, but because I 
they are of such interest to us in our home and busi- 
ness life. 

266. The State Executive. — Most of the state gov-\ 
ernors are elected for terms of four years, although, in 
some of the northeastern states, one year is the term. 
The governor is the chief state executive and the head of 



STATE AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT 



345 



the militia; he appoints many state officials and boards 
and, as we have seen, he may veto bills. 

Each governor has a great many colleagues, that is, Other ad- 

° . ministrative 

associate administrative officials. Many of tnem are officials and 
elected, but some are appointed. In a few states there 
are a large number of administrative boards or commis- 
sions. Some of these are well organized within a few 




Governor Stephens op California at His Desk 

groups and act together very harmoniously; but in most 
states each administrative board works by itself. 

267. The State Courts.— Almost all civil and criminal Different 

. state courts. 

suits brought for trial in the United States are tried m 
state courts rather than in those of the nation. The 
highest state tribunal is usually called the Supreme Court; 
ordinarily it does not consider cases unless they have 



346 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Judges 



Nature and 
purpose of 
a county. 



been tried first in a lower court. Below this highest court 
are usually courts, three or four in number, for the dis- 
tricts into which the state is divided. These are called 

circuit or district 
courts. Below these, 
and frequently the 
lowest court in the 
system, is the county 
court. The judges 
of these courts are 
in one sense county 
officials, because 
they are elected 
by voters of the 
county, although 
the cases tried be- 
fore them involve 
state laws much 
more frequently 
than local laws. In 
many states there 
are other local 
courts. 

Except in a few 
eastern states, all judges are elected by the voters of the 
section within which the court has jurisdiction. The 
term of office of a state judge is seldom more than four 
years, except for the higher state courts, for which the 
term may be as long as twenty-one years. 

268. County Government. — The American states are 
divided into counties, which are convenient areas for the 
administration of state laws. Counties also look after 
local affairs, especially those of a public nature affecting 
the rural districts. Some California and Maryland couth 
ties have charters made by themselves and approved by 




Photo by Brown Bros. 

Cook County Government Building 
Chicago, Illinois 



STATE AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT 



347 



the legislatures of the state. No other states allow a 
county to make its own charter. 

Each county has a county board. This may be a board Composi- 

. tion and 

of supervisors, selected in New York by the voters of the work of the 

townships. It is likely to be a board of commissioners, board y 

three or five in number, and elected either from districts 

or from the whole county. As a body, the county board 

supervises the affairs of the county, especially the work 

of other county officials, and takes care of finance, 

including the raising and expenditure of money. It looks 

after roads, bridges, county buildings, and other public 

improvements. It makes ordinances and in a general way 

supervises the enforcement of state laws within the 

county. 

Besides its county board, each county has some elected County ad- 
mi «i 'nf ministrative 

officials. There is always a sheriff and a county attorney, officials, 
and usually an assessor, a clerk, a treasurer, and an 
engineer. Possibly there may be other officials who are 
elected by the voters. There are also a number of 
appointed officials and boards, usually chosen by the county 
board. Ordinarily the term of office is either two or four 
years. 

City Government 

269. The Charter. — Every city is governed under a Charters 
written document called a charter. Usually the charters state legis- 
are given to the city by the state legislature, which atures 
provides charters of several classes. Very large cities are 
cities of the first class, cities of moderate size of the 
second or third, and small cities of the fourth, fifth, or 
lower classes. Different provisions may be given in the 
charters of the larger cities from those desirable in 
smaller communities. 

Several states allow the voters of each city to make 
their own charter. The California method is typical of 



348 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Home rule 
charters in 
several 
states. 



these. A city which votes for a new charter can elect a 
board of fifteen freeholders, each of whom must have 
owned land within the city for a period of at least five 
years. This board drafts a charter and submits it to 
public vote. If approved by the voters, it is then referred 
to the state legislature, by which it must be endorsed 
before it goes into effect. 



Composi- 
tion and 
powers of 
the council. 




City Hall, Waterbury, Connecticut 

270. Forms of Municipal Government— Mayor and 
Council Type. — At present there are three types of city 
government in use: (1) the mayor and council type, 
(2) the commission form, and (3) the city manager plan. 
Under the mayor and council form, the council is usually 
a small body of one chamber, chosen from wards or dis- 
tricts into which the city is divided. The council makes 
ordinances, or local laws, for the city, raises revenue and 
decides how it shall be spent, borrows money with the 
consent of the voters, and grants franchises for city railways 
and other public utilities (§162). 

The mayor is the chief executive official of cities that 



CITY GOVERNMENT 



349 



have the mayor and council form of government. He is 
likely to have very little real authority, although he 
usually has some power of appointment. Ordinarily he 
may veto bills. 1 

271. Commission Government in Cities. — A large 
number of American cities, chiefly of medium size, use 
the commission form of government. The commission is 
an elected council, and has the powers of a council, but it is 
made up of the chiefs of three, five, or seven great depart- 
ments of the city government. Some of these departments 
are finance, public safety, and public works. It is probable 
that the commissioners know the needs of the city far. 
better than is possible for the members of an ordinary 
council, but the commission form has no head. Although 
a commission seems to be a united body, it is really the 
opposite. 

272. The City Manager Form. — The newest type of city 
organization provides for a city manager, in addition to 
either a commission or a council. The city manager is 
an expert, not necessarily a resident of the city, appointed 
by the commission or council and selected for the purpose 
of assuming entire control of city administration. Since 
the city is a public corporation, many people believe that 
a business manager, similar to the general manager of 
a business corporation, ought to be successful. Several 
hundred American cities now have city managers. 

273. Elective Officials and Elections. — In most Ameri- 
can cities, there are some elected officials besides the 
members of the body that makes ordinances. Among 
these is likely to be the chief financial official, who is 
known as an auditor or controller. Possibly a city clerk 
is also elected, and a city attorney. Other administrative 
heads may also be chosen by popular vote. 

1 In some cities the mayor has concentrated authority, and, with the 
aid of two or three colleagues, one of whom he may appoint, practically 
controls the municipal government. 



Position of a 
city mayor. 



Nature, ad- 
vantages, 
and defects 
of commis- 
sion gov- 
ernment. 



Nature of 
business 
organiza- 
tion. 



Officials 
who may be 
elected. 



350 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Partisan 
and inde- 
pendent 
nominations. 



Large num- 
ber of ap- 
pointive 
officials. 



Adminis- 
trative 
boards. 



Municipal elections usually occur at a different time 
from state and national elections. There is a good reason 
for this arrangement. If city elections take place on the 
same day as those for the state or nation, the members of 
the city government are likely to be chosen because they 
belong to a certain party rather than for other good and 
sufficient reasons. In some cities, no candidates are 
nominated except by the Republicans and Democrats. 1 
Many cities depend upon groups of independents for 
nominations to public office. Such citizen movements are 
likely to be of a temporary nature; therefore attempted 
.reforms are often short-lived. If election to city office 
were a greater honor, if it were easier to secure the best 
candidates, and if the people were more interested, the 
problem of city elections and good municipal government 
would be very much simpler than it is. 

274. Appointive Officials and Boards. — Since many 
American cities now have either commission government 
or the city manager form, most of the officials who were 
mentioned in the preceding section as elected are appointed 
by the person or body that has the appointive power. 
There are always some other administrative officials who 
are appointed rather than elected Among these are 
probably a treasurer, a tax assessor and collector, and a 
city engineer. 

The administrative boards always include a fire board 
and a police board. In turn, these boards appoint the 
fire chief and the chief of police, and possibly the men in 
those departments. Sometimes there is a water board to 
look after that public utility and a board to care for boule- 
vards and parks. Usually each city has a library board. 

The members of these boards are ordinarily selected by 
the mayor with the consent of the council or by the 

1 If such cities have large independent leagues of voters who select 
from the party nominees those who will make the best city officials, 
such a scheme is not objectionable. 



CITY GOVERNMENT 



351 



commission or by the city manager. Their tenure of Method of 
office may be fixed and may be as long as four years. The cityVffi- ° 
application of the laws and management of city business employes, 
constitute the chief work of a city. These are adminis- 
trative tasks; consequently the duties of administrative 
officials and boards are very important. The regular 
employees of a city are often selected by a civil service 
commission, after examination. 



References 

unwritten constitution. Ashley, The New Civics, 



1. The 
§§214-217. 

2. The United States Senate — its work and influence. Bryce, 
The American Commonwealth (abd.), 83-93. 

3. The functions of the Senate. Munro, The Government of the 
United States, 162-175. 

4. The House of Representatives at work. Bryce, The Amer- 
ican Commonwealth (abd.), 108-114. 

5. Rules of the House of Representatives. Marriott, How 
Americans are Governed, 151-157. 

6. Observations on the presidency. Bryce, The American 
Commonwealth (abd.), 52-57. 

7. The President's power of appointment. Taft, Our Chief 
Magistrate and His Powers, 55-77. 

8. The overworked President. Steffens, L., McClure's Maga- 
zine, 18 (1902), 483-492. 

9. The cabinet. Bryce, The American Commonwealth (abd.), 
64-70. 

10. The enforcement of law. Harrison, This Country of Ours, 
113-118. 

11. The state legislature. Bryce, The American Commonwealth 
(abd.), 329-341. 

12. The governor of the state. Munro, The Government of the 
United States, 431-444. 

13. The pardoning power of the governor. Reinsch, Readings 
on American State Government, 19-25. 

14. The working of the state governments. Bryce, The Amer- 
ican Commonwealth (abd.), 366-378. 

15. State committees. Holcombe, State Government in the 
United States, 253-261. 



352 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

16. Town and county government. Ashley, The New Civics 
§§185-189. 

17. City charters. Howe, The Modern City and Its Problems. 
86-96. 

18. Types of city government. Ashley, The New Civics. 
§§160-165. 

19. Session of a board of aldermen. McPheters, Cleaveland, 
and Jones, Citizenship Dramatized, 61-75. 

20. The working of city governments. Bryce, The American 
Commonwealth (abd.), 422-427. 

21. Successes and failures of municipal government. Howe, 
The Modern City and Its Problems, 50-65. 



* 



* 



*Ashley, The New Civics, Pt. II. 
*Bryce, The American Commonwealth. 
*Young, The New American Government and Its Work. 
*Munro, The Government of the United States. 
*Beard, American Government and Politics. 
*Reinsch, Readings on American Federal Government. 
*Reinsch, Readings on American State Government. 
*James, Local Government in the United States. 
*Holcombe, State Government in the United States. 

Mathews, Principles of American State Administration. 

Willoughby, The American Constitutional System. 

GoodNow and Bates, Municipal Government. 
*Munro, Principles and Methods of Municipal Administration. 
*Wilson, Constitutional Government in the United States. 

Questions 

1. To what extent were the American people united before the 
Revolutionary War? What was the nature of the union during the 
war, and to what extent was it a government? When was the first 
legal union made, and by what name was it called? Discuss the 
problem of the constitutional convention and show how its main 
problems were solved. Quote the Preamble of the Constitution. 
How many amendments to the Constitution have been adopted and 
how have they been made? Explain four amendments. 

2. What do you understand by Congress? For each house of 
Congress, state the following: name, number of members, method 
of election, term of office. When are elections held? When does a 
new Congress begin? What is the difference between the first and 

* Primarily for teachers. 



CITY GOVERNMENT 353 

second regular sessions of any Congress? When special sessions are 
held, how are they called? Name one of the senators from this 
state and the congressman from this district. 

3. What general powers does Congress possess? Quote the 
elastic clause. Explain the revenue powers possessed by Congress. 
What commercial powers are vested in Congress? What military 
and territorial powers does the national government possess? Name 
special powers of the Senate and explain two. What three special 
powers does the House of Representatives have? 

4. How is a President nominated and elected? What do you 
mean by the term chief executive? What powers of appointment 
does the President possess? Who selects a postmaster for this 
community? What does the President do in connection with Con- 
gress? Name at least two other powers of the President. 

5. Name the ten departments represented in the President's 
cabinet. Give names of President, Vice President, and three mem- 
bers of the present cabinet, stating what each did before he was 
chosen for his present position and what each has done since. 
Describe duties of each member of the cabinet as head of a depart- 
ment. 

6. Of what three sets of courts is our national judiciary com- 
posed? For what term are national judges selected? How many 
judges are there in the Supreme Court? What kinds of cases may 
come before the national courts? Who is Chief Justice? 

7. How many constitutions has this state had? What is the 
method of amending the constitution in this state? When was the 
present constitution made? Has it been amended greatly? What 
is included within our state constitution? According to the 
national and state constitutions, who may vote within this state? 

8. For each house of our state legislature, give the following: 
name, number of members, term, and special powers. When do 
elections occur? How long does the legislature usually remain in 
session? 

9. What is a legislative bill? Describe the process of changing 
a bill into a law. If a state governor or the President does not wish 
a bill to become a law, what does he do? How may the bill 
become a law in spite of him? What do you understand by the 
term "pocket veto"? 

10. Enumerate several powers of the state legislature, showing 
that the legislatures overshadow the rest of our system of state 
government. Give the name, term of office, time of election, and 
chief powers of the governor of this state. Describe fully the system 



354 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

of courts of our state, stating number of judges, term of office, and 
jurisdiction of each court. 

11. Why are American states divided into counties? Should a 
county have a charter? If so, how should it be secured? What is 
a county board? Name the most important powers of the ordinary 
county board. What other elected officials are there in this county, 
and what is the work of each? Name some important officials 
appointed by the county authorities. 

12. What is a city charter? How does a city get one from a 
legislature? How do the cities in some states organize home-rule 
charters? If possible, give the history of your city charter. 

13. Name three types of city government. What does the 
council do in a mayor and council type? Name some powers 
ordinarily possessed by the mayor. Tell about the organization, 
advantages, and disadvantages of the commission form of govern- 
ment. What is a city manager, and why have many cities adopted 
the city manager form? 

14. If you live within a city, make a careful study of the city 
charter. What city officials are chosen by popular vote in this 
city? What is the term of office and salary of each? If there is 
a council, state number of members and term of office. When 
do municipal elections occur? What is the objection to political 
party nominations for local offices? What important officials 
are appointed in this city? Who has the power of appointment? 
May the officials be removed? If so, by whom and under what 
circumstances? Name at least two boards that help to administer 
the work of this city. 

15. To what extent would you consider this city well governed? 
What do you deem the greatest successes in its government? The 
greatest failure? What problems must be met soon? Have any 
new policies been suggested? 



PART VI 



THE CITIZEN, AMERICA, AND THE WORLD 



CHAPTER XXI 



THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 



1. The different races represented 

a. The people of colonial times 

b. English and Scotch immigration since 1776 

c. The Irish 

d. The Germans 

e. The Scandinavians 
/. New immigrants 

2. Immigration 

a. Periods of immigration 

b. Location of immigrants 

c. The immigrant as a worker 

d. Social results of immigration 

e. Laws restricting immigration 

3. Americanization 

a. The process of naturalization 

b. The making of Americans 

The Different Races Represented 

• 275. The People of Colonial Times.— When the Amer- 
ican people declared their independence of Great Britain 
in 1776, they numbered but two and a half million, 
whereas to-day there are approximately one hundred ten 
million people in the United States. The population 
doubled practically every twenty-five years from 1700 
to 1825, although during those years there was compara- 
tively little immigration. 

The New England colonies were settled almost exclu- 
sively by Englishmen of Puritan stock. Most of these 
people came from the middle classes, although a few of 
them had belonged to the gentry, or the country aris- 
tocracy, of the mother country. 

357 



Number of 
people in 
colonial 
and later 
times. 



The people 
of New 
England. 



358 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Different 
races in the 
middle 
colonies. 



Classes and 
races in the 
South. 



Extent of 
modern im- 
migration 
compared 
with 
colonial. 



Numbers 
and char- 
acter of 
British im- 
migrants. 



The middle colonies were settled by a comparatively 
large number of Englishmen, some of whom migrated 
from the New England colonies to New York or New 
Jersey, but many of whom came directly from England 
either to those colonies or to Pennsylvania. In New York 
a large number of people were descended from the original 
Dutch settlers. Along the Delaware river there were 
descendants of the original Swedes. In Pennsylvania was 
a large number of Germans, commonly known as Penn- 
sylvania Dutch, who had come to this country at the sug- 
gestion of William Penn. In the foothills of the middle 
colonies and of the southern colonies were many Scotch- 
Irish settlers who had been driven out of northern Ireland 
in the first half of the eighteenth century. 1 

The southern colonies were settled by more aristocrats 
and a larger number of the poorer whites than were the 
colonies farther north; therefore the middle classes were 
probably less represented than in other sections. Besides 
the English in the coast region and the Scotch-Irish settlers 
in the foothills, there were some French Huguenots, most 
of whom located in South Carolina. More than three 
quarters of the negroes lived in the southern colonies, 
although there were some in the North also. 

276. English and Scotch Immigration since 1776. — In 
1500 there were no European settlers in what is now the 
United States. The American people are, therefore, a race 
of immigrants. The number that came annually to 
America in the years immediately preceding the World 
War was several times as great as the total number of 
Europeans who migrated to America before 1776. 

Strange as it may appear, since 1776 probably twenty- 
five times as many immigrants have come to the United 
States from Great Britain or her provinces, chiefly Canada, 

1 See Ashley, Modern European Civilization, § 363, on the illiberal 
British policy toward Ireland in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- 
turies. 



THE DIFFERENT RACES REPRESENTED 359 

as came during the whole colonial period. Naturally these 
later immigrants could not have the influence upon 
America and American history that the earlier English- 
men had; but they aided the United States in many 
ways. They were thoughtful, industrious, and self- 
respecting people. Their interest in government has 
helped America in the working out of the democratic 
problems which she has been trying to solve for herself 
and the world. 

277. The Irish.— Comparatively few of the Irish peo- Causes and 
pie came to America before 1845. The Scotch-Irish who the m^/a- 
arrived before that time are not included because they are ^eLnd m 
really Scotch. In 1845, and in the years following, Ire- ^ ^ ' 
land was afflicted by a great famine. During this period, 
more than a million of the Irish people left that stricken 
country and the migrations continued almost unabated 
until late in the nineteenth century. The total number 
that entered the United States was almost equal to the 
combined numbers of the English and Scotch peoples 
during the same period. 

Most of the Irish immigrants remained in the north- Irish char- 
eastern part of the country, settling chiefly in cities. ?h^We 
They interested themselves quickly in the politics of becon ?e 
American cities. Their light-heartedness, quickness of American ' 
wit, and lack of frugality have helped to develop these • 
same characteristics in Americans. 

278. The Germans.— In 1848 there were a series of Causes of 
revolutions throughout Germany, i These revolutions £?£S> n to 
were repressed by the old autocratic governments, which America, 
drove most of the new, progressive liberals out of central 
Europe. Many of these men migrated to America. In 
later years the severe military policy of Germany was 
responsible for the exodus of many hundreds of thousands 
of young men from that country. German immigrants 

» See Ashley, Modern European Civilization, §§221-227. 



360 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Location 
and char- 
acteristics 
of German 
immigrants. 



Causes of 
Scandina- 
vian immi- 
gration. 



Location 
and qualities 
of Scandi- 
navians. 



Extent of 
recent im- 
migration 
from south- 
eastern 
Europe. 



have been more numerous than those from any other one 
country. 

Some of the Germans settled in northern cities, but more 
of them went to western farms. As a rule they were hard- 
working, persistent, thrifty people, ambitious to make a 
success of whatever work they undertook. They brought 
with them their well-known taste for good music. In 
America as well as in the old world they gave their atten- 
tion with especial zeal to the applied sciences. 

279. The Scandinavians. — In the last half of the nine- 
teenth century, a large number of Scandinavians migrated 
to America. A little more than fifty years ago, an eco- 
nomic revolution changed the methods of manufacturing 
goods and of raising crops in Scandinavian countries, 
reducing greatly the demand for labor. In consequence, 
after our Civil War, Norwegians, Swedes, and Danes came 
in large numbers. 

Most of the Scandinavians settled in the Northwest. 
As a rule, they went to agricultural districts where in 
those days they could easily obtain homesteads. They 
were hard-working, frugal people of simple tastes and fre- 
quently of considerable enterprise. 

280. New Immigrants.— By 1890, the old immigration 
from western, central, and northern Europe had declined 
greatly; but from southern and eastern Europe came 
still larger numbers, especially Italians, Austrians, and 
Russians. In 1907, the total reached 1,285,349. At the 
close of that year, about one person in eighty within the 
United States was a newly arrived immigrant. By 1914, 
the number of Austro-Hungarian immigrants exceeded 
the total immigration from Ireland, that of Italy was 
only a little less than the number from Germany, and that 
from Russia 1 almost equalled the nineteenth century exodus 
of Englishmen and Canadians to the United States. 

i The number of Slavic Russians was much smaller than that of either 
Poles or Russian Jews. 



THE DIFFERENT RACES REPRESENTED 361 



Into the causes of recent immigration we shall not have Why recent 
time to inquire. We must, however, notice some facts rSfblen tl0n 
concerning immigration. Illiteracy has been much more ^fe^han 
common among these recent immigrants than it was the old - 
among their nineteenth century predecessors from central 
and northern Europe. They do not belong to the same 
races as the people they found here ; for recent arrivals 




Over 30j> 



|««|J g$ S3 Over 30 Jo 

mm mk*t-»i 



have been neither Celtic nor Teutonic, as were the early 
settlers and the immigrants of the mid-nineteenth century. 
They have lower standards of living, practically no ex- 
perience in self-government, and probably less capacity 
for self-government than the earlier immigrants. If 
they are " birds of passage," coming for a season to return 
to their old homes with their savings, they add little and 
subtract much from American welfare. When they 
remain and become naturalized (§286), they usually 
prove desirable citizens. Many, however, do not become 
citizens. 

Immigration 

281. Periods of Immigration. — It can be seen from the 
preceding survey that migration from the old world to the 



362 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



First two 
periods of 
foreign im- 
migration. 



Westward 
migration 
of old 
American 
stocks. 



new has occurred in several well denned periods. The 
earliest of these covered the seventeenth century, 1 when 
the Atlantic coast was being settled from the Savannah 
river to the bays of Maine. A second period of migration 
occurred during the first half of the eighteenth century. 
The foot-hill region of the Alleghany mountains was 
occupied largely by the Scotch-Irish immigrants, and 




Copyright, Underwood and Underwood 

Main Waiting Room, Immigration Station, Ellis Island 

there was a movement also of the frontiersmen from the 
coast settlements to the interior. 

Before the great wave of foreign immigration started in 
1845, there was a continued westward movement across 
the gaps of the Appalachian mountains to the Mississippi 
basin. This movement was one of the most important 
in all history because, on these wide prairies in the center 
of the United States, men came together from different 

1 Most of this migration, outside of Pennsylvania and the Carolinas, 
came in the first half of the seventeenth century. 



IMMIGRATION 



states, worked out new, advanced, and more democratic 
ideas, and formed what really deserves to be called the 
American race. 

The third period of foreign immigration, which began 
with the Irish famines in 1845, continued until nearly the 
close of the nineteenth century and, as indicated above, 
brought chiefly Germans, Englishmen, Scotchmen, and 
Irishmen. In the last period, since about 1890, com- 
paratively few immigrants have come from western 
Europe. Most of them have migrated, in some cases 
temporarily, from the countries bordering on the Mediter- 
ranean and from lands in southeastern Europe. 

282. Location of Immigrants. — The immigrant of the 
mid-nineteenth century was inclined to follow in the 
footsteps of the progressive American of that day. In 
the terse phrase of Horace Greeley, the ambition of many 
was to "go West, young man, and grow up with the 
country.' ' In those days many immigrants moved west- 
ward, settling either in the live, growing young towns of 
the West or preferably on the fine agricultural lands 
which Uncle Sam gave as homesteads to any adult 
citizen, or to a foreigner who intended to become a citizen, 
on condition that he should live on the land. 

In the last half century, immigrants have tended to do 
what the first settlers or immigrants did, that is, to 
locate at or near the points where they land. The early 
colonists did that of necessity, because it was necessary 
for them to be in touch with the Old World and therefore be 
near the seaboard. The newer immigrants have remained 
near the Atlantic seacoast for several reasons. Few of 
them have had a sufficient amount of money to take 
them far into the interior. Most of them have preferred 
to remain in race groups in the cities, where they are with 
their friends. Many also plan to return to their own 
country, either temporarily for a part of every year, or 



Last two 
periods of 
foreign im- 
migration. 



Settlement 
of nine- 
teenth cen- 
tury immi- 
grants in 
the West. 



Reasons for 
location of 
new immi- 
grants on 
Atlantic 
coast. 



364 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Congestion 
of new im- 
migrants 
in north- 
eastern 
cities. 



Industry 
but lack 
of skill m 
of immi- 
grants. 



Three 
changes 
brought 
about by 
immigra- 
tion. 



permanently when they have saved a sufficient sum to 
make it worth their while. 

In 1910, we find that practically three quarters of the 
people of foreign birth in the United States were in the 
northeastern section. Furthermore, we notice that three 
states, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, have 
absorbed more than half of the total number of immigrants 
that have entered the United States since the beginning 
of the present century. 

283. The Immigrant as a Worker . — Most immigrants 
have come to America in order to improve their condition. 
Some of them may have expected to do this without 
working very much; but the vast majority have been 
accustomed to hard labor and have proved industrious 
and useful citizens. When they first came, however, 
most of them did not know the English language, and 
comparatively few were prepared to do any but the 
crudest kind of labor. Especially in the northeastern 
cities we have therefore usually had an oversupply of 
unskilled workmen. This surplus of labor has caused 
hardship to native unskilled workers, because the Ameri- 
can standard of living is higher than that of the immigrant. 
The native Americans were therefore forced to compete 
with these aliens on an unequal basis. 

As a result of the competition between the native and 
the foreign worker, the native-born Americans usually 
did one of three things. (1) They took advantage of the 
opportunities to get a good education in the American 
public schools and therefore no longer belonged to the 
class of common or unskilled laborers. In a sense they 
were forced out and up, and were therefore much better 
off than before. (2) They migrated to some place in the 
West where land was abundant, labor was scarce, and the 
demand for labor and the wages of labor therefore high. 
(3) When the workers could not find better work which 



IMMIGRATION 365 

they could do either in their old home or in a new, 
they were obliged to compete with the foreigner on a 
comparatively low level. 

The result of this competition was unsatisfactory Results of 
because both wages and the old standards of living were competi- 
lowered. From the standpoint of increased wealth, these lon * 
immigrants, most of whom were young and strong, have 
been a great advantage to us. From the standpoint of 
living standards of the poorer American, however, they 
have been a serious disadvantage. 

284. Social Results of Immigration. — In spite of laws increase of 
which have sought to limit the immigration of those who to immi- 
might become public charges, we find that immigration gratlon - 
has added to the crime, poverty, insanity, and illiteracy 
in the United States. We learn that although persons of 
foreign birth or foreign parentage number only one third 
of the total population, less than one half of the crimes 
traceable to white persons are committed by native-born 
Americans. 

The figures for poverty are more startling. In 1890, for 9 ost -° , 

° r v r i • America of 

example, although only fifteen per cent of the American paupers and 

■, c-i •• j_ j? i r ± insane per- 

people were loreign-born, immigrants lormed lorty per sons . 
cent of the paupers receiving public aid. When we 
consider that many of these paupers are also insane, and 
that the cost of caring for the foreign insane and paupers 
in the single state of New York amounts to more than 
$20,000,000 a year, we can see how great a burden has 
been placed upon the American people by the migration 
of these misfit or unfit members of society. 

Among native white people of the United States, there illiteracy 
is much less illiteracy than there was a quarter of a natives, 
century ago. It is interesting to note that illiteracy is [mm^n/?, 
lowest among the native white persons of foreign parent- and ^ he for " 

. .... eign born. 

age. Only about one per cent of the children of immi- 
grants over ten years of age are unable to read or write. 



366 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Summary of 

exclusion 

acts. 



Immigra- 
tion prob- 
lem during 
reconstruc- 
tion period. 



On the contrary, so many illiterate immigrants have come 
to America during the last twenty-five years that nearly 
thirteen per cent of the foreign-born white people are 
unable to read. 

285. Laws Restricting Immigration. — In 1864, Con- 
gress created the office of immigration commissioner, for 
the purpose of looking after immigrants. It was not 
until 1882, however, that any law was made for the 
exclusion of foreigners. Since that year convicts, idiots, 
and persons likely to become public charges have been 
excluded. In 1884, Congress forbade the admission of 
aliens who had contracted to work in competition with 
American labor. 1 In the list of undesirables Congress 
more recently has included anarchists, convicts, and 
those with certain contagious diseases, including tuber- 
culosis. 2 Illiterates above the age of sixteen, except wives 
or dependent parents of immigrants, are excluded by the 
law of 1917. 

Since the World War, the reconstruction immigration 
problem has become, far more serious that it ever was 
before. During that struggle practically every country 
of Europe lost an immense amount of property and a 
large number of men. In many areas the devastation 
has been so widespread that it has been almost impossible 
for the peasants to make even the poor living that they 
made before the war. Immediately at the close of the 
contest, people were too poor to migrate ; but, as soon as 
they had saved a little money, they besieged the steam- 
ship companies for passage to a country that had suffered 
comparatively little and that looked to them like paradise. 

1 Orientals are practically excluded either by law or by international 
agreement. 

2 If a steamship line brings one of these forbidden aliens to our 
shores, it is required to give that person return passage. This law 
helps to account for the fact that the number of excluded aliens has 
never risen above one per cent of those seeking admission to the 
country. 



IMMIGRATION 



367 



In 1921, Congress therefore passed a law restricting 
European immigration temporarily. 

In the future the American people must study this Features 
problem of immigration more carefully. Although we migration 
should not close our doors to refugees who seek to escape po lcy * 




Photo by Brown Bros. 

Board of Last Resort on Admission of Immigrants 

from political and religious oppression or who wish to 
get away from economic hardships, after all, our first 
duty must be to ourselves. Oriental immigration to the 
Pacific coast should be prohibited, and European immi- 
gration to the shores of the Atlantic should be limited as 
much as is necessary. 



Americanization 



286. 



The Process of Naturalization. — Virtually all Why aliens 

q "pfi oil o'nrpfi 

aliens are allowed to become citizens in order that they to become 
may really become Americans. If they lived here, but cltlzens - 
were not members of this nation, they would take 
comparatively little interest in American affairs. As 



The first 
step in 
naturaliza- 
tion. 



368 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



I 



they have come in large numbers, it is undesirable to have 
them in America without making them members or citizens. 
An alien can become a citizen only after jive years 
residence in this country. He is obliged to take out two 
sets of papers. The first are called intention papers and 
are given to him when he goes before a federal court and 
declares that it is his intention to become a citizen of the 
United States. These papers may be taken out at any 
time after he has resided in this country one year. The 
court keeps a record of his statements and gives him 



The last 
step in 
naturaliza- 
tion. 




Copyright, Underwood and Underwood 

Examining Applicants for American Citizenship 

papers to show that he has declared his intention of 
becoming an American citizen. 

Not less than two years after intention papers have 
been granted to him, nor more than seven years after 
that time, the foreigner who wants to become a citizen 



AMERICANIZATION 



369 



goes again before a court which keeps records. This 
time he may go either before a federal court or a state 
court. If he has been in this country five years and has 
done the things which 
the naturalization law 
demands, his applica- 
tion is considered 
carefully. If the court 
is satisfied that he 
would make a desir- 
able American citi- 
zen/ he finally for- 
swears his allegiance 
to the country of 
which he was formerly 
a citizen, and he be- 
comes a full-fledged 
American citizen. 
Citizenship papers are 
then issued to him. 
When a married man 
is naturalized, his wife 
and minor children do not need separate naturalization 
papers. 

287. The Making of Americans. — In the past, some Americani- 
Americans have felt that foreigners must be excluded the past! 
from this country. They have believed that the large 
number of aliens who have come, ignorant and apparently 
degraded, are a menace to America and to her institutions. 
Looking back, we are grateful that our ancestors did not, 
or could not, take any action excluding Europeans from 

1 In the county of Los Angeles, state of California, and in some other 
localities, citizen papers are seldom granted unless the applicant has 
gone to a special school and taken a course in citizenship. The certifi- 
cate which proves that the applicant has completed such a course is 
accepted by the court without further discussion. This is called the 
diploma plan of naturalization. 




Copyright, Underwood and Underwood 

Granting Final Citizenship Papers 



370 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Uses of edu- 
cation in 
the process 
of Ameri- 
canization. 



Building 
solidly 
for the 
future. 



this country. In a single generation, the immigrant has 
often become one of the most loyal American citizens. 
His interests are as much American as they ever could 
have been European. In the public schools, the chil- 
dren of immigrants have understood American ideas and 
institutions as well as have those of older American 
stock. 

We have now begun a new movement for the American- 
ization of the immigrant. We have continued this 
further for the Americanization of those who have lived 
in America a much longer time. Education is the chief 
means by which we hope to complete this work of Ameri- 
canization, to explain to the people what American 
institutions are, to show them for what America stands, 
and to help them appreciate the work that America is 
trying to do. The regular courses in citizenship and in 
civics that are given in our schools are of the highest 
value in Americanization, for those whom they reach. But 
unfortunately they can not reach the foreigner. Some 
special courses in citizenship and Americanization in 
night schools or in special immigration schools are of 
value in teaching American ways, plans, and ideals to 
the immigrant. 

To make foreigners into true Americans, we must 
depend upon education, especially on free schools, which 
make no distinction of persons. We must depend also upon 
business, which makes the immigrant a useful, necessary 
worker and consumer in the community, and upon social 
intercourse. The immigrant may not understand us very 
well, and he may learn our language imperfectly, but hej 
should be compelled to use it rather than his native tongue. 
Certainly it is our fault as well as his if his children are 
foreigners rather than Americans. We need not fear fori 
the racial future of our country so long as the child of 
European parents loves the flag, longs to become a voter, | 



AMERICANIZATION 371 

and boasts of the fact that he is an American. Such a 
course of action is good for him. It is not less good for us. 

References 

1. Causes of immigration. Hall, Immigration, 14-35. 

2. Immigration to America, 1860-1882. . Fairchild, Immigra- 
tion, 90-105. 

3. The Scotch-Irish. Ross, The Old World in the New, 12-17. 

4. The Celtic Irish. Irvine, My Lady of the Chimney Corner, 
Ch. X. 

5. The Italians. Ross, The Old World in the New, 95-119. 

6. The Slavs. Ross, The Old World in the New, 120-140. 

7. Japanese immigration. Jenks and Latjck, The Immigra- 
tion Problem, 237-252. 

8. Immigrants in cities. Davis, Immigration and Americaniza- 
tion, 216-223. 

9. Distribution of immigrants. Davis, Immigration and Amer- 
icanization, 505-525. 

10. Immigration and the living wage. Davis, Immigration and 
Americanization, 255-263. 

11. Some economic consequences. Ross, The Old World in the 
New, 202-215. 

12. Economic effects of immigration. Hall, Immigration, 
121-138. 

13. Crime among immigrants. Hall, Immigration, 146-156. 

14. The new problem of immigration. Fairchild, Immigra- 
tion, 369-380. 

15. Immigrant homes and aid societies. Jenks and Latjck, 
The Immigration Problem, 263-270. 

16. The schools and the nation. Steiner, Nationalizing Amer- 
ica, 163-188. 

17. The naturalization of foreigners. Davis, Immigration and 
Americanization, 600-610. 

18. What is Americanization? Davis, Immigration and Amer- 
icanization, 623-638. 

19. American traits — democracy and brotherhood. Bogardus, 
Americanization, 41-58. 

20. Americanization of the native-born. Bogardus, American- 
ization, 185-194. 

*Ross, The Old World in the New. 
*Hall, Immigration. 

* Primarily for teachers 



372 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

*Jenks and Lauck, The Immigration Problem. 

*Hamilton (ed.), Cwrrent Economic Problems, Part IX. 

*Bogardus, Americanization. 

*Davis, Immigration and Americanization. 

* Wolfe, Readings in Social Problems, Book II. 

*Bok, Americanization of Edward Bok. 

Questions 

1. Compare the population of the United States a century ago 
with what it is to-day. Who settled New England? Name and 
describe the most important races or groups to be found in the 
middle colonies. What social and racial differences do you find | 
within the southern colonies? 

2. Compare immigration from the British Isles before 1776 
and since 1776 with reference to number of immigrants and influence 
on American history. What has been the character of the English 
or Scotch immigrants? What has been the importance of Irish 
immigration? 

3. Name two other races, large numbers of which came to this 
country during the nineteenth century. Explain causes of the 
migration of each, show where the people settled, and tell what 
they were like. Indicate the importance of the migration in each 
case. 

4. From what part of Europe have the recent immigrants come? 
Why have they less education than their predecessors? Why has 
the problem of recent immigration been different from that of the 
nineteenth century, and more serious? 

5. Name the most important periods of foreign immigration. 
Show what areas were occupied in each case, and explain what 
races or localities furnished most of the settlers. How far west did 
any of the early immigrants settle? 

6. Why have a very large percentage of immigrants been men? 
What kind of labor have most of these men furnished? Name three 
economic results of immigration, paying particular attention to the 
effect of the immigrant upon the native worker. 

7. Name at least three social results of immigration and explain \ 
each in detail. Explain the most important national laws restrict- 
ing immigration. What has been the problem of immigration ini 
recent years? 

8. Why do we allow aliens to become citizens? Describe the| 

* Primarily for teachers. 



? 



AMERICANIZATION 



373 



process of naturalization in detail. Considering the importance of 
citizenship, is it too easy to become a citizen? Do you believe that 
the process is too difficult? 

9. What do you mean by Americanization? What percentage 
of recent foreigners have failed to become citizens? What is the 
educational problem of Americanization? Is there a problem of 
Americanizing natives of this country? Upon what other means 
shall we depend to make better Americans in the future? 





CHAPTER XXII 

THE COMMUNITY 

Different kinds of communities 

a. What is a community? 

b. Rural communities 

c. Location of cities 

d. The people of a city 

e. Two types of ordinary urban communities 
/. Communities larger than the city but smaller than the 

nation 
g. Nation communities 

Community organization 

a. General and political organization 

b. Community organization of an industrial nature 

c. Social community organization 

d. Neighborhood organization 

e. Social centers 
/. Community spirit 



Different Kinds of Communities 

Types and 288. What is a Community? — The name community is 
communi- used in many different senses, to include almost any group 
ties ' from a neighborhood to a nation. It is well to limit the 

use of the term community, however, to a fairly well 
organized and unified group which occupies a rather 
definite but small area. In a large city, a neighborhood; 
which was practically a city by itself before it was 
absorbed by the metropolis might deserve to be called a 
community. The ordinary city, numbering from twenty- 
five thousand to two or three hundred thousand inhabi- 
tants, gives us the best possible type of true community. 
It is especially typical if the municipality is neither a 

374 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMMUNITIES 



375 



suburb of a larger city nor encircled by towns or villages 
whose life is really a part of the life of the larger com- 
munity. 

289. Rural Communities. — The center of a rural com- 
munity is likely to be a village. If the village is sur- 
rounded by farming country, the people of which have 
interests in common with one another, the rural com- 
munity may be just as truly a community as is a city. In 
one sense it has a better and truer community spirit 
because its population is not shifting and its members have 
known each other and each other's families for a long 

time. 

The New England township or town is a good example 
of this type of community, centering around the village 
life. The town meeting, which manages most of the town 
affairs, has been an assemblage of all men of the commu- 
nity; it now includes all women. All those who wish come 
together once a year or oftener to discuss problems, select 
community leaders, and decide important community 
questions. 

No rural community should seek to organize itself as 
does a city. Its interests are not like those of a munici- 
pality, and the classes of people of which it is composed 
are different. In these days of fairly good roads, there is 
no reason why rural communities should not develop 
better school systems, replacing several scattered and 
struggling schools by one first-class graded school. The 
schoolhouse or town hall of the village should be the social 
center (§299) for gatherings of all the people. In such 
meetings the members of the community can become 
better acquainted and develop a real community center. 
By investigation they can find out what are the most 
pressing community problems, and by discussion they can 
find the best ideas for the solution of each. Under proper 
leadership such a community can do infinitely more for 



The village 
as the 
center of a 
rural com- 
munity. 



The New 

England 

town. 



Something 
that an 
organized 
community 
can do. 



376 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Reasons for 
present 
location of 
commercial 
cities. 



Names and 
locations of 
important 
manufac- 
turing 
cities. 



its people than most rural communities have ever 
attempted. 

290. Location of Cities. — Most communities are not 
rural but urban. In the United States there are more than 
fifteen hundred cities with a population of 5,000 or more. 
The location of these cities is not a matter of chance, but 
is due to several well defined causes. New York City is 
the largest American metropolis because of the advan- 
tages which New York harbor has for foreign trade and 
because of the easy access which the city had in the past 
and now has to the interior of the country, Chicago, near 
the southern end of Lake Michigan, is close to the heart 
of the interior. It taps the trade of many states; from it 
numerous railway lines reach out in all directions. San 
Francisco, New Orleans, and Boston are other good 
examples of commercial cities whose location is particu- 
larly good for trade. They become the depots through 
which the people of their section receive goods and send 
goods to the outside world. 

Not all cities are distinctively commercial cities like 
those which we have named. Some are devoted to manu- 
facturing. In consequence, they are probably located 
near the source of the raw materials of which they make 
the most use. Meat-packing centers, for instance, those 
situated along the Missouri river, Omaha, St. Joseph, and 
the Kansas Cities, are good examples of this type of in- 
dustrial center. Pittsburgh is our greatest steel center 
because Pennsylvania is our greatest coal state and for- 
merly produced much of our iron. Birmingham owes its 
rise to the nearby deposits of both coal and iron. Many 
other industrial cities are located at waterfalls. Minne- 
apolis with its water power easily became the milling 
center for the great wheat area of Minnesota and the 
Dakotas. Along the "fall line" of New England, cities 
like Lowell, Providence, and Fall River have developed. 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMMUNITIES 377 

291. The People of a City. — More than half of the Large per- 

f*PTl -f- o off* OT 

people of the United States live in cities of more than foreigners 
twenty-five hundred inhabitants ; for we have ceased to m Clties " 
be an agricultural and rural nation and have become an 
industrial and commercial one. Most American com- 
munities are made up of Americans, at least some of whose 
ancestors lived in this country; and yet our larger cities, 
especially in the northeastern part of the country, are not 
American in this sense. More than seventy-five per cent 
of the people of Greater New York, of Chicago, and of 
some other large cities are either foreign-born or are the 
children of immigrants. Most of the residents in some of 
our cities of moderate size are of alien birth or of foreign 
parentage. 

Although there are more men than women in the Large num- 

ber of 

United States, there are more women than men in our women in 
cities. One reason for this is the fact that more men Clties ' 
than women are needed on the farms. Another reason is 
that the demand for women workers in cities is greater 
than that for men because factories and stores can 
employ women for a lower wage than men. 

There is a real difference between the ordinary country- Character- 

istirs of 

man and city dweller in ideas and in practices. We think city boys. 
of the solid virtues as belonging to the boy brought up on 
the farm. City life, however, develops those habits 
which make a person more alert, more sociable, and more 
adaptable. The city boy probably can work out life 
problems more easily than his country cousin, although 
it is his misfortune to live farther away from nature. 

292. Two Types of Ordinary Urban Communities. — The small 
One type of community spirit is possible in a rural com- or stagnant 
munity, in a village, or town, or in a slow-going city. commumt y« 
The community has certain traditions which it cherishes. 

It has a definite attitude towards its problem. A com- 
munity of this type is likely to be conservative, possibly 



378 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



The grow- 
ing, aggres- 
sive Amer- 
ican city. 



because it is more proud of the past than anxious to solve 
new problems as they arise. Its schools are likely to be 
good, but not of the latest type. There probably is less 
poverty and strife than in a younger community that is 
growing more rapidly. Unless business is stagnant, there 
are fewer people out of work because the laborer knows 
what situations may be offered, and the number of 
workers is likely to equal the number of positions. Such 
a community is like a middle-aged person, quiet, easy- 
going, and rather successful. 

Most American cities are not of this type. They are 
continually growing and changing. The people have not 
had time, or taken time, to think out community problems, 

to find out what 
they want to do, 
or to decide upon 
some definite 
policy for the 
good of everyone. 
The city officials 
probably repre- 
sent one group or 
faction rather 
than the whole 
community. The 
people are con- 
tent so long as 
taxes are not too 
high, and so long 
as there is not 
too much graft or 
inefficiency in the 
government, or too much interference with business. 
In short, this type of city has the aggressive, careless 
ways of youth. 




New York Town Hall 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMMUNITIES 



379 



293. Communities Larger than the City but Smaller 
than the Nation. — It is difficult to treat so large a metrop- 
olis as Greater New York as a community. In fact, it 
is not one community but several communities, each of 
which must be considered and studied separately. Never- 
theless, since a metropolis 1 is under a single government 
and in other ways acts as a unit, it is organized and 
governed much as a community is organized and governed. 
Moreover, the problems of a metropolis differ not so much 
in kind as in degree from the problems of a smaller city 
or real community. If we understand what a community 
is like and what community organization is, it is therefore 
possible to apply what we have learned about the com- 
munity to the study of a metropolis — its government, fi- 
nances, industries, commerce, and other problems. 

The United States of America is composed of states or 
commonwealths, large and small. As communities, how- 
ever, Rhode Island and Texas can not be considered to- 
gether any more than the needs and problems of Nevada 
and New York can be settled by the same treatment. The 
government of these states or commonwealths has been 
examined in an earlier chapter. Their economic condi- 
tions and problems have been discussed when we 
considered the relation of business to government (§§161- 
169). Their financial problems, so far as they affect 
public revenue, are treated in Chapter XIX. 

294. Nation Communities. — The nation is often treated 
as a community, since it is a great group or society which 
must have organization. This organization must include 
a government. Rules or laws must be made to regulate 
the affairs of the members of the nation in their dealings 
with one another. In this sense, therefore, a nation is a 
very large community. This is also true if a nation has 

* i Metropolitan New York really includes such communities as Jersey 
City and Newark, which have separate governments because they are 
in a different state. 



Similarities 
between an 
ordinary 
community 
and a 
metropolis. 



States as 
commu- 
nities. 



The nation 
as a com- 
munity. 



380 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Possibility 
of a world 
community 
of nations. 



The prob- 
lem of 
con stant 
changes in 
city gov- 
ernment. 



Importance 
of non- 
political 
community 
organiza- 
tion. 



national ideas and ideals which are accepted and sup- 
ported by most of the people. One of the most important 
phases of national community spirit (§300) we call 
patriotism. 

In these days, when a league of nations has been formed 
to bring together the different countries of the world in 
order to promote peace and other common interests, it 
may be possible to speak of a world community among 
civilized races. The world community, however, has not 
been organized as a single group of people, because it has 
not developed unity as a group, nor has it worked out 
group ideas and ideals. The day may come, however, 
when it may be possible for each of us to say as did 
Fenelon, the great tutor of Louis XIV, nearly three 
centuries ago, "I am a citizen of the world." 

Community Organization 

295. General and Political Organization. — Every ci 
must study its own population, situation, and needs in 
order to determine what kind of community organization 
it should have. A kind of organization that would be 
suitable for a city of the conservative type might not be 
adapted to a growing community. The average American 
city seems to be more interested in experimenting with 
different forms of city government than it is in working 
out, carefully and thoughtfully, those forms of govern- 
ment best adapted to its public needs. Apparently it 
prefers a form different from that which it has. When a 
change is made, it probably adopts the new form after 
considerable discussion, but with comparatively little 
study. 

Community organization does not consist solely or even 
chiefly of city government. Community needs are very 
much greater than those which can be satisfied by any 
municipal government. The chief community leaders 






COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 381 

are not necessarily the public officials chosen at election. 
It is probable that even less attention has been given to 
the problem of studying community organization of a 
nonpolitical type than has been given to city govern- 
ment. Yet few questions are more important for every 
community. 

296. Community Organization of an Industrial Nature. Different 
—Every business company is in a way a community wSfe 
organization, because it helps to satisfy community needs, commun- 
It may do this simply by selling goods that the people i&* or s an - 
want. It may be a street railway or some other system 
of transportation. It may be an industrial plant, which 
uses the materials that the city produces or brings in. 
If so, it may turn them into finished products, which may 
be sold within the city. More frequently the goods are 
prepared for other markets, for which the city is a dis- 
tributing center. A factory is a community organization 
for another reason; it furnishes employment to many 
workers. Working men and women have their chief 
interest in the plant in which they are engaged many 
hours a day, six days a week. Their homes may be 
clustered about it and their family life is probably 
centered in the neighborhood of which the plant is an 
important part. 1 

Often a business organization has a distinctively civic Civic char- 
nature. Merchants and manufacturing associations, business 
boards of trade, and chambers of commerce are organiza- twns? Za ~ 
tions that are not trying chiefly to develop the separate 
businesses of their members. Most of these bodies are 
concerned especially with the development of business 
opportunities within the city in which they operate. 

1 More important from the community point of view than the separate 
lactones or transportation lines and depots are the organizations which 
bring these business interests together. Cooperation between different 
factories and plants may be of a distinctively businesslike nature such 
as, for instance, a cooperative organization or a consolidated system of 
railways or transfer service. 



382 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Religious 
associations 
for civic 
betterment. 



Educational 
and welfare 
clubs and 
federations. 



Limited use 
of neighbor- 
hood organi- 
zation. 



Some of them take the name u Chamber of Commerce and 
Civic Association" in order to show that their interest is 
not solely in business, since it includes work for civic 
betterment, not as a side issue, but as one of the main 
reasons for existence. In many communities these groups 
or organizations of business men are the chief guiding and 
directing forces of a civic character. 

297. Social Community Organization. — An entirely 
different type of community organization is found in 
churches and schools. Like an industrial plant, every 
church and every school is a center for its members or 
students. In cities that are not distinctively commercial 
or industrial, church and educational centers are quite as 
important as any headquarters of a business nature. 
Leadership in the community frequently comes from 
clergymen as individuals or through ministerial unions. 
A group of ministers may work alone; usually the group 
cooperates with the Y. M. C. A. and the Y. W. C. A., 
because those associations support all movements for 
civic improvement and for moral uplift. 

Societies of women in connection with churches or 
schools are constantly studying civic problems. Parent- 
teachers associations are among the most active of the 
agencies attempting to develop the neighborhoods into 
true communities within the larger community, the city. 
Welfare, recreational, and health organizations are mak- 
ing our cities not only more sanitary but in other ways 
better places in which to live. When these organizations 
and a larger number of other civic clubs are federated, 
they form a better organized body for the study and 
development of a civic policy than any other community 
organization. 

298. Neighborhood Organization. — Some of these 
organizations work only in the city at large, but many are 
unions of neighborhood groups. A neighborhood may be 






COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 383 

a true community if it has rather definite boundaries 
within the city of which it is a part, and is more or less 
homogeneous. Therefore its people have common 
interests and activities. In a very few cities, including 
parts of Chicago and Cincinnati, neighborhoods have been 
organized in order to carry on a number of activities, such 
as those concerned with education, health, and recreation. 

Some neighborhoods have community councils, composed Composi- 
of several officials, aided by the chairmen of numer- work of the 
ous committees. 1 The community council tries to organ- council. 1 " y 
ize the neighborhood into a unified community group, 
aims to direct the activities of different civic associations 
within the neighborhood, and seeks to work out a policy 
of its own. 

A neighborhood association may be organized for a Different 

. , - , . * , j purposes of 

single purpose, such as the improvement of streets and a neighbor- 
parks within that particular district. Its purpose may be i Z atiom gan ~ 
distinctively recreational, to supervise playgrounds, pub- 
lic dances, community plays, and motion picture theatres 
or other places of amusement. Its work may be to bring 
its people together to discuss and debate public questions. 
When an election occurs, it may even enter politics, 
usually an unwise procedure, in order to have public 
officials who favor the neighborhood or to secure measures 
that will benefit the locality. Whether its work is health, 
general welfare, education, recreation, or the discussion of 
business affairs, the association needs a single neighbor- 
hood center. 

299. Social Centers. — Community organization finds The part 
its best expression in the social center. The schoolhouse schoolhouse 
may be a social center, because schoolhouses must be ™mm Un ^ty n 
located throughout the city. Ordinarily a schoolhouse life - 

1 The community council is not simply a group made up of repre- 
sentatives from several social and business organizations. Such a group 
of representatives would not have very much authority, nor would it 
have a great deal of influence in directing the work of the different 
groups which it represents. 



384 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



What may 
be done in 
a social 
center. 



has a hall or room where the men and women of the 
neighborhood may gather for talks, lectures, and enter- 
tainments, or for discussion. Every schoolhouse should 
have playgrounds which can be the center of play activi- 
ties for children of the neighborhood. There is no reason 
why the playgrounds should not be supplemented by 
rooms suitable for games, dramatics, 1 and other play 




•Social Center 

activities of youths or of adults. There may be rooms 
furnished as reading rooms or even as branch libraries. 
Some schools have gymnasiums and plunges, but few 
elementary schools provide such advantages. 

In a first-class social center, the art of getting acquainted 
should be developed. Residents of one street should learn 
to know those of neighboring streets or districts. They 
should learn the tastes and interests of their neighbors. 

* If there is a good-sized platform with some stage scenery in a 
school assembly room, plays can be furnished. 



COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 



385 



They should discover what work is being done by this 
neighborhood group or community, should study its 
problems, and should find out what it needs. Most of 
the friction and the majority of the failures in life are due 
to ignorance and misunderstanding. Even if the social 
center can not organize a neighborhood group into a real 




Community Pageant 

unit, it can at least make the neighborhood count for more 
than it has done in the life of the community. 

300. Community Spirit. — Almost every community The wealth- 
has some individuality. Each is likely to have an atmos- community, 
phere. Each has ambitions, goals, and methods of its 
own that make it distinct from any other community. 
These aims may not be high, and the work done may 
not be of a worthy nature. If the goal is simply to make 
money, and the object of community organization is to 



386 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Good civic 
spirit in 
business 
centers. 



Leadership 
vs. organi- 
zation as 
causes of 
civic spirit. 



Need of 
civic organi- 
zation of 
all civic 
groups. 



produce more dollars, the community spirit will be merce- 
nary. In such a communitj^, class hatred is easily devel- 
oped, because each man or group or class is anxious to 
gain for himself or his fellows at the expense of those with 
whom he is associated in business. 

If the underlying purpose of any community is selfish 
and mercenary, it is almost impossible to counteract this 
spirit by organizing the community for civic improvement 
and betterment. On the other hand, a community may 
be anxious to make all the money possible, but, at the 
same time, it may have a fine community spirit. This 
may be due to the fact that the community as a whole is 
better organized than are the men whose souls are set on 
money-making. It may be due to good leadership, to a 
type of government well adapted to the city's needs, and 
to especially able public officials. It may be due, although 
usually it is not, to an excellent organization of the civic 
forces of the community. 

In most American cities, it must be admitted that the 
groups that are working separately for some type of civic 
betterment do not understand each other's purposes, 
principles, and achievements, and therefore do not work 
together. In such communities, civic spirit is an accident. 
Civic spirit may be good in spite of poor civic organiza- 
tion, because of the high character of the people who live 
in the community. It may be due to the work of a few 
leaders in the past who set up for the city high ideals. 

A city should have a definite goal which it tries to reach ; 
it should hitch its "wagon to a star." A watchword or 
slogan frequently helps in developing civic spirit, just as 
a class yell or school song arouses school spirit. The best 
community spirit, however, is not possible without good 
organization of the forces making for civic righteousness. 
It should be the aim of every American city to bring 
together all groups that are working for the city in any 



COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 387 

way and let all of them make their contribution to civic 
betterment and a finer civic spirit. 

References 

1. What is our community? Dunn, Community Civics and 
Rural Life, 58-66. 

2. Problems of country life. Tufts, The Real Business of Liv- 
ing, 325-333. 

3. Conditions and influences in the city. Tufts, The Real Busi- 
ness of Living, 299-310. 

4. Development of commercial cities. Smith, Industrial and 
Commercial Geography, 840-844. 

5. The people of a city. Beard, American City Government, 
3-12, 22-30. 

6. An integrated neighborhood. Follett, The New State 
204-215. 

7. A responsible neighborhood. Follett, The New State 
232-244. 

8. The world state. Follett, The New State, 344-360. 

9. The school as a social center — general. Curtis, Education 
through Play, 295-309. 

10. Some activities of school social centers. Curtis, Education 
through Play, 310-324. 

11. Wider use of the school plant. Avery, L. B., School and 
Society, 7 (1918), 481-485. 

12. Types of social centers. Zueblin, American Municipal 
Progress, 259-266. 

Follett, The New State, 189-257. 

Hart, Community Organization. 

Rainwater, Community Organization. 

Jackson, A Community Center. 
*Ward, The Social Center. 
*Talbot (ed.), Americanization. 
* Wolfe, Readings in Social Problems. 
*Ward, The New Social Order. 

Questions 

1. What is a community? Describe a rural community. What 
are some of the problems of the rural community or village? 

2. Explain why large cities are located where they are. Dis- 

* Primarily for teachers. 



* 



* 



388 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

tinguish between cities chiefly commercial and those that are dis- 
tinctively industrial. Name some of each and show their situation. 
(Use the map.) 

3. Why do cities contain a larger percentage of immigrants 
than are found in the country? Why are there more women than 
men in cities? Why are there more young men and young women in 
the cities than elsewhere? 

4. Describe a conservative urban community. Of what impor- 
tance are its community problems? Why is it difficult to organize 
a growing community? Name at least two problems of such a 
community. 

5. What is the relation of a metropolis to an ordinary com- 
munity? How are metropolitan an'd community problems alike? 
Why is it difficult to discuss all American states (commonwealths) 
at the same time? Why is it possible to consider a nation as an 
enlarged community? In what sense only is it possible to speak of 
a league of nations or a world state as a world community? 

6. What is the attitude of the ordinary city toward its govern- 
ment? What group organization of a civic character is made by 
every first-class community? What businesses are civic in char- 
acter? Explain your answer. 

7. In this community, name at least a half dozen organizations 
of a civic type. If possible, tell what each is doing and whether 
there is a federated group of organizations connected with each set 
of activities. What is your idea of a neighborhood? What do you 
understand by a social center? In what ways is a social center a 
training school in democracy? 

8. If the people of a city have come together chiefly for money- 
making, in what ways can they create the right kind of civic spirit? 
What can each of the following contribute to community spirit: 
(a) better government, (6) better organization of welfare and better- 
ment activities, (c) civic goals that are worth reaching, and (d) the 
development of a wise and broad civic policy? 



CHAPTER XXIII 



INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 

Interrelation of modern nations 

1. General 

a. International law 

b. International organizations before 1918 

c. The League of Nations 

2. America and the world 

a. " Splendid isolation" 

b. America and world peace 

c. The Monroe Doctrine 

d. The United States as a world power 

3. International methods and defense 

a. The making of treaties 

The consular service 

The American army 

The American navy 

The future 



b. 
c. 
d. 
e. 



301. Interrelation of Modern Nations.— It is only a 
few centuries since nations of the modern type came into 
existence. In dealings with one another, these nations 
have had numerous problems and disputes. Some of 
these disputes have led to wars and even to prolonged 
and widespread conflicts. 

The general relations of one nation to another are 
called diplomatic relations, and the discussions held 
between them are known as diplomacy. As a rule, the 
conclusions arrived at have been embodied in treaties, 
which are international agreements, binding until broken 
by one of the parties. For centuries it has been customary 
for each nation to have a diplomatic representative at the 
capital of every other important . country . These inter- 

389 



Modernness 
of nations 
and of 
inter- 
Mational 
relations. 



Diplomatic 
relations 
of nations. 



390 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



national agents or diplomatic representatives are known 
as ambassadors or ministers. It is interesting to note 
that the ambassador's person is sacred. The building in 
which he resides and does business is treated as a part of 
his own country and not as territory controlled by the 
government to which he has been sent. 




Commercial 
relations 
and rival- 
ries. 



Copyright* Clinedinst Studio 

French Embassy, Washington, D. C. 

Themodern world' has grown very small since the 
steam engine and the electric telegraph have reduced 
distance by land and sea. It is now possible for the 
peoples of the world to exchange ideas and also to trade 
on a scale that was impossible in earlier centuries. The 
vast expansion of international commerce can be indicated 
by a single statement; in 1914 the volume of the world's 
trade was twenty-five times as great as it was a hundred 
years earlier, when Napoleon was overthrown by his 
enemies. Because every nation wishes to do as much 



COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 391 

business as possible, there has been rivalry among the 
great powers over the acquisition of new colonies, and 
each has tried to make commercial treaties that would 
increase its trade, even at the expense of some other 
country. Nations have also built high tariff walls, which 
have excluded from the home country and from its 
colonies foreign-made goods that might injure business, 
especially manufacturing. It can thus be seen that 
international trade rivalry, that is, the scramble for the 
almighty dollar, may very easily be at the bottom of 
disputes between nations and possibly of great wars. 

General 

302. International Law. — As we have already noticed, Laws used 
the fundamental law of any people is called constitutional nations. 
law. It is made up of national and state constitutions 
and of important laws necessary to explain those funda- 
mental documents. We have also studied a second type 
of law, the kind which we ordinarily call by that name. 
These are the statutes made by the national Congress 
(§257) and by the state legislatures (§264). This kind of 
law is called statute law. 

Both constitutional and statute law deal with problems Need and 
within the United States. If, however, a problem arises oftnter- 1 
on the high seas or in Europe, or anywhere outside of the f a ^ ional 
boundaries of the United States of America, we find that 
no country pays any attention to the laws of Congress or 
of our different states. For the dealings of one nation 
with another, it is necessary, therefore, to have a system 
of rules, not made by one nation, but agreed upon by 
many. These rules are called international law. Since 
there has never been an international legislature, these 
rules are usually made in conferences or conventions and 
are ordinarily embodied in treaties signed by a number 
of important nations. 



392 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Difficulties 
in enforcing 
inter- 
national 
law. 



Inter- 
national 
Congress 
(1814- 

1878). 



The two 
Hague 
Peace Con- 
ferences. 



Not only has no international lawmaking body ever 
existed, but there has never been an international execu- 
tive, like our president or the king of a European country, 
who could enforce the international rules. For nearly a 
quarter of a century, however, there have been interna- 
tional courts. We can see, therefore, that since we have 
not had an international government, the rules known as 
international law have never been complete, nor have they 
been very definite. If any nation wished to break them 
in time of peace, it usually did so. In time of war, it was 
practically impossible for one country to force another 
against its will to observe an international rule. 

303. International Organizations before 1918. — Until 
the year 1899, there were no permanent international 
organizations. At the close of an important war, there 
were always conferences or congresses composed of 
representatives from the nations concerned, and possibly 
from a few other powers that were interested. The 
Congress of Vienna in 1815 was supposed to be such a 
conference and was called for the purpose of rearranging 
the boundaries of European countries that had been 
conquered by Napoleon. 1 The Treaty of Paris at the 
close of the Crimean War (1856) and the Treaty of Berlin 
at the close of the Russo-Turkish War (1878) were made 
by similar conferences, called to decide important prob- 
lems of the Near East. These bodies were made up 
almost exclusively of diplomatic representatives inter- 
ested in a particular set of problems. 

In 1899 there was held, at the capital of the Dutch 
Netherlands, the First Hague Peace Conference. In 1907 
a Second Peace Conference was held in the same city. 
Although these peace conferences were no more perma- 
nent than the earlier peace conferences, they were after all 
of a different character. They represented practically all 

i Ashley, Modern European Civilization, §§170-171. 



GENERAL 



393 



important civilized nations and were called not to settle 
disputes over which nations had been fighting, but to 
agree upon general principles of international usage and 
to prevent future wars. 1 

Out of the Hague conferences grew a permanent tri- 
bunal, which we call the Hague Court. This is a board 
of more than a hundred members. This tribunal has not 
had the right to decide many disputes, because no nation 
is compelled to submit any international problems to the 
court. Moreover, no important case involving territory, 
or the jurisdiction of a government, or the international 
honor of any country has ever been brought before the 
Hague tribunal. 

304. The League of Nations. — Even before the World 
War broke out in 1914, many public-spirited and far- 
sighted people had been working on plans for a league of 
nations or some other type of international government. 
Many plans had been proposed, among them the sugges- 
tions of the League to Enforce Peace, of which William 
H. Taft was the head. In the peace conference which was 
held in Paris 2 in 1919 to decide the terms that should be 
enforced against Germany and her allies in the World War. 
it was proposed that there should be a League of Nations. 
The constitution of the League of Nations was therefore 
made a part of the treaty with Germany. 3 

This constitution of the League was signed at the 
beginning by the representatives of thirty-two states. Pro- 
vision was made that new states might join, with the 

1 Undoubtedly, those who were interested in these conferences hoped 
to reduce the armaments of the world, so that it would not be neces- 
sary to have as large standing armies and as great navies as before. 
They wished, also, by agreeing upon certain rules or laws, not only to 
prevent the development of disputes, but, after trouble did arise, to 
settle them without resort to war. It is needless to say that the Hague 
conferences really did not succeed, since they were followed by the 
greatest war of all history. 

2 The treaty that was made by the conference is called the Versailles 
Treaty, as sessions were held in the palace of Versailles. 

3 The United States afterward made a separate treaty with Germany. 
At this time it is not a member of the League of Nations. 



Composi- 
tion, 

powers, and 
failures of 
the Hague 
tribunal. 



Proposal 
to form an 
inter- 
national 
government. 



Constitu- 
tion of the 
League of 
Nations. 



394 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



consent of two thirds of the League Assembly. The gov- 
ernment of the League consists of an Assembly and Coun- 
cil. The Assembly is made up of representatives from the 
different member states. Each member has one vote but 
none has more than three representatives. In the Council 
are representatives of the British Empire, France, Italy, 
and Japan, and four chosen by the Assembly. The Coun- 
cil rather than the Assembly takes charge of League 




The League, 
Conferences, 
and the 
United 
States. 



Copyright, Underwood and Underwood 

First Session op the League of Nations Assembly 
Geneva, Switzerland 

affairs. There is a Secretariat, composed of a Secretary 
General and assistants, which looks after routine business. 
Geneva, Switzerland, has been selected as the permanent 
seat of the League. 

The League held its first meeting at Geneva in the fall 
of 1920, fifty-three members being represented. The 
United States had not agreed to the peace treaty with 
Germany, or upon the League constitution, and therefore 



GENERAL 395 

was not represented. The United States has taken the 
lead in calling disarmament conferences, supplementary 
to the League, to discuss specific international problems. 
The Conference in Washington in 1921 was the first of 
these. The time has passed when any nation can exist 
as a great power by itself and for itself alone. Since 
it has constant and important relations with other nations, 
it must work with them or lose its place as a civilized 
power. 

America and the World 

305. "Splendid Isolation."— The United States has importance 
been most fortunate in its geographical situation. It is ££££?*'* 
located in the north temperate zone in one of the finest 
areas on the face of the globe. Its eastern shores touch the 
Atlantic and its western slopes reach the Pacific. The 
future will show how commanding is this position in the 
heart of the western continent and in the pathway of ad- 
vancing civilization, controlling, in a sense, the two great 
oceans of the earth. 

How different is the situation in Europe, where the Contrast 
countries are small and usually have no natural bounda- JS?" 1 the 
ries to protect them. Each touches elbows with its neigh- Stuatio 1 
bors, most of whom speak a different language, have dif- in Europe 
ferent national ideals, and oppose the expansion if not the America, 
normal development of the adjacent country. Whereas 
controversies between European states have been con- 
stant, America has been able to develop as she wished. 
Separated from Europe by three thousand miles of ocean, 
we have gone our own way, working out our own problems 
by ourselves. 

We are indebted to Europe for many of the institutions Relations 
and other elements of civilization that we ourselves now EiSS^and 
have; but Europe has been too far away to force us to America> 
do anything we preferred not to do. Consequently Amer- 



396 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Advice of 
early Amer- 
ican states- 
men on for- 
eign policy. 



America as 
a neutral 
and as a 
champion 
of neutrals. 



Settlement 
of inter- 
national 
disputes 
by arbitra- 
tion. 



ican ideas, forms of government, and business methods 
have been different from those used on the other side of 
the Atlantic. Although we have engaged in several wars 
with European countries, we have been drawn into these 
only when the causes were American rather than Euro- 
pean. We have not needed a large standing army to 
protect our borders from foreign invasion, nor until 
recent years have we felt the need of a large navy, either 
for defense or to safeguard our numerous interests abroad. 

Until the closing years of the nineteenth century, we 
followed a policy of "splendid isolation." We looked 
back with pride to the suggestions of our first president 
that we should not take active part in European affairs, 
of the great founder of the Democratic party that we 
should avoid "entangling alliances," and of those who 
promulgated the Monroe Doctrine that we should pre- 
vent Europe from dominating the weak Latin-American 
republics. In recent years, however, we have been forced 
to abandon this policy of isolation. 

306. America and World Peace. — From the beginning 
of her history, the United States has exerted her influence 
to secure the rights of neutrals against the interference of 
countries that were at war. When George Washington 
was president, a proclamation of neutrality was issued 
(1793) declaring that the United States would not take 
part in the great European war that was then being 
fought. In the first part of the World War, the United 
States tried to remain neutral; later, she was forced to 
enter the conflict because of the submarine warfare 
carried on by Germany against all countries. 

A century ago international arbitration was almost 
unknown. The United States and Great Britain had 
submitted minor disputes to boards which examined each 
problem and made suggestions for its settlement. In 
later years, the United States used her influence to decide 



AMERICA AND THE WORLD 



397 



disputes by arbitration rather than by resort to force. 
Especially was this the case if the dispute existed between 
Great Britain and the United States. It was not until 
the twentieth century, however, that the world came to 
realize the benefits of settling all minor difficulties in this 
way. About ten years after the opening of the century, 
hundreds of arbitration treaties were signed by the 
leading countries of the world; each agreed that if 
controversies were not too vital, they should be decided 
by arbitration. 

307. The Monroe Doctrine.— The most important of 
all foreign policies of the United States is called the 
Monroe Doctrine. The doctrine was first announced in 
1823. At that time the former Spanish-American 
colonies had proclaimed and were maintaining their 
independence; but the autocratic governments of con- 
tinental Europe had offered aid to Spain in reconquering 
them. Against this action the United States protested. 
She asserted that she had never interfered in distinctively 
European affairs and that therefore Europe should not 
interfere in distinctively American affairs. She declared 
that the American continents were no longer subject to 
further European colonization. 

This doctrine has been expanded since it was first 
announced. When we found that powerful European 
nations were trying to collect debts, and in the collection 
bring the weaker American countries under their sub- 
jection, we protested against debt collection as an excuse 
for political domination by Europe. When Great 
Britain tried to decide a boundary dispute with Venezuela 
by seizing land of that republic, we again objected. 
Still later, President Roosevelt asserted that Europe 
should not interfere in the government or in the affairs of 
any Latin-American country on any pretext. He 
admitted, however, that if we allow no interference, we 



The original 
Monroe 
Doctrine 
(1823). 



Develop- 
ment of the 
original 
Monroe 
Doctrine. 



398 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Why the 
WorldWar 
did not 
affect the 
Monroe 
Doctrine. 



What is a 

great 

power? 



Why no 
6maU 
country is 
a great 
power. 



must accept responsibility for good government in those 
countries and must see that Europe gets a square deal. 

Since we took part in the World War, many people 
believe that the Monroe Doctrine no longer has the 
importance that it had formerly. This is probably true, 
but we must keep this one fact in mind : the United States 
did not break the Monroe Doctrine when she sent 
troops to Europe; she entered the World War because 
Germany was interfering with her in America and else- 
where, not because Germany was committing atrocities 
in Europe. 

308. The United States as a World Power. — At the 
present time the affairs of the world are dominated by 
the great powers, of which the United States is one. 
The question may be asked, what makes a nation a 
great power? Although it is not easy to answer that 
question satisfactorily, we can at least name several 
elements of world power. 

No small nation has sufficient territory, or wealth, or 
material resources to be a great power. If a country is 
small, its population also is small, especially when com- 
pared with that of the larger countries. Austria would 
not have attempted to browbeat Russia as she did Serbia 
at the beginning of the World War in 1914, nor would 
Germany have treated France as she treated Belgium. 
These small countries were not able to protect themselves 
and were therefore subjected to injury and humiliation. 
When a nation occupies a small land area, it lacks not 
only mineral resources, but also extensive systems of 
factories and railways and other means of creating 
wealth. Such a country is a pigmy, and a great power 
must be a giant. 

World power depends upon political and military 
strength. A country may have a vast population, as 
have China and India, but, if its government is not well 



AMERICA AND THE WORLD 399 

organized and sufficiently powerful to protect its people, influence 
world position and power is impossible. A world power me^an" 
must therefore have a strong government. This does army ' and 
not mean that the country is well governed, but that, in wor . 1( ? 
its dealings with its neighbors, its government can protect P ° 
its national interests as well as gain most of the advantages 
that it needs. In order to do this, it must have a vigorous 
diplomatic corps that is made up of able men, well 
trained in the work. A country that loses most of its 
diplomatic battles, as did Germany before 1914, must 
probably be satisfied to occupy a secondary position, or 
it must do what Germany did, depend upon the "mailed 
fist," that is, it must threaten war, and if necessary, 
resort to war. Unless there is in existence a powerful 
world government or suitable understanding among the 
great nations, a world power must have an army and 
a navy large enough to protect itself. In the past the 
only countries that could be protected by small armies 
were those which were guarded by nature, as was Great 
Britain by the English Channel and the United States by 
the two oceans. These countries, however, depend for 
defense upon powerful navies. 

A world power must have prestige. A business man Prestige: 
who has gained a reputation either for his firm or for a t^ce and 
particular kind of goods can outsell his competitors and b^ined^ 
possibly drive them from the market. A nation which has 
the name of getting what it wants, of carrying through a 
policy which it starts, or of always playing fair, will, by 
virtue of that reputation, win out over its competitors, 
other things being equal. If a new country, such as the 
United States of America, is to gain the first world posi- 
tion, it must depend on its commanding position, or its 
limitless resources. Because America is larger and has 
more natural resources than her European rivals, she 
should be the foremost world power of the future, even 



400 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



How 

treaties 
are made. 



if she did not occupy the commanding position between 
the Atlantic and the Pacific. 

International Methods and Defense 

309. The Making of Treaties. — Agreements made be- 
tween two countries are usually called treaties. They are 
ordinarily made at the seat of government of one of the 
countries. The foreign secretary of that government 




The part of 
the Senate 
in treaty- 
making. 



Copyright, CUnedinst 

Office of the Secretary of State, Washington, D.C. 

negotiates the treaty with the ambassador or minister who 
represents the other country at that capital. At the close 
of a war, however, the provisions of a treaty of peace are 
usually arranged at the capital of some neutral nation. A 
peace treaty is ordinarily negotiated by special represen- 
tatives from the two or more governments. 

A treaty is made by our President through the Depart- 
ment of State; but it must be ratified by two thirds of 
the Senate of the United States. In order that a treaty 



INTERNATIONAL METHODS AND DEFENSE 401 

may not be rejected by the Senate, the President usually 
consults the leaders of the Senate Committee on Foreign 
Relations. At the close of the World War this was not 
done, with the result that the treaty was not ratified. 
The Senate does not hesitate to reject the whole or part 
of a treaty or to amend any section. 

310. The Consular Service. — The diplomatic service, -Distinction 

. , 7 between 

which looks after the international affairs of the United diplomatic 
States as a nation, should not be confused with the con- i ar services. 
sular service, which takes charge of commercial interests 
of our people in foreign lands. The diplomatic corps 
numbers only a few ambassadors and about a score of 
ministers, whereas consuls are located in all important 
foreign cities. 

The duties of consuls are varied and exacting. Each Some things 

• i t^ ot i that a con- 

COnsul is obliged to report to the Department of State the S ui must do. 

amount of foreign commerce within his district, including 

the character of the imports and the countries to which 

exports are sent. He looks after the welfare of American 

merchants abroad who may need his services, takes 

charge of invoices of goods shipped to the United States, 

aids travelers, and sends special reports on subjects that 

American citizens wish to investigate. 1 

311. The American Army. — In both Great Britain and Small 
the United States, there has always been opposition to a Great 
large standing army. In the early years of the twentieth united 
century, when Great Britain should have had a huge States 
military force, she refused to create an army or resort to 
conscription. In that country and in the United States, 

in time of peace armies have been recruited by voluntary 
enlistment. 

During the nineteenth century, we depended upon an 
army of about twenty-five thousand men. After the 

1 Among semi-barbarous peoples, cases affecting citizens of the 
United States are tried in consular courts, because the courts of that 
country can not decide cases fairly, according to American standards. 



402 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Increase of 
the army 
(1898- 
1919). 



The Ameri- 
can militia. 



Efficiency 
of army 
and officers. 



Why we 
need a large 
navy. 



Spanish-American War, this force was increased to sev- 
eral times that number, and, soon after the outbreak of 
the World War, but before we were drawn into the con- 
flict, the number was increased again. In spite of the 
warnings of a distinguished ex-president, Theodore 
Roosevelt, no steps were taken to enlarge the army 
greatly until we were actually engaged in war with Ger- 
many. At the very beginning of the World War, we 
depended upon voluntary enlistment, but almost imme- 
diately thereafter we provided for a selective draft. The 
first draft army was made up of able-bodied men between 
the ages of twenty-one and thirty who did not have 
dependents. Later, a law was passed for the drafting of 
men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, but the 
war closed before this army was really mobilized. An 
army of about two million men was transported to France 
before fighting actually ceased. 

In colonial times and during the nineteenth century, 
the American people depended to a considerable extent 
upon a militia force. For a long time this has been called 
the national guard, but it was not until 1916 that it was 
practically reorganized as a part of the American army. 

The value of an army depends far more upon its 
organization, training, and equipment than upon its size. 
Quite as important is the skill of the officers and the 
organization of the General Staff. Since 1802 officers 
have been trained for the American army at the West 
Point Military Academy. Officers are also prepared in 
other schools, and civilian camps have been established 
at which the rudiments of military tactics have been 
taught. 

312. The American Navy. — Our geographical situation 
makes us more dependent upon a navy than upon an 
army. It is possible to organize an army within a few 
months, but it takes longer to create a navy. The United 



INTERNATIONAL METHODS AND DEFENSE 403 



States now has the second largest navy in the world, and, 
before a ten-year naval holiday was declared by the First 
Arms Conference, she was building more battleships and 
other war vessels than any other country. 

Some of our naval vessels are used chiefly for coast 
defense. All important harbors are well protected also 
by batteries and 
by mines locat- 
ed along the 
ship channels. 
The most power- 
ful weapon of 
coast defense is 
the submarine, 
which depends 
upon torpedoes 
for the destruc- 
tion of enemy 
vessels. 

Modern wars 
are fought chiefly 
by engineers; 
therefore our 
engineers should not be inferior to those of any oppo- 
nent. Since 1845, we have had a Naval Academy at 
Annapolis, Maryland, for the training of naval officers. 
In addition, many of our seacoast states have naval 
militia. 

313. The Future.— At no time in history has it been 
more difficult than now to decide what should be the policy 
of the nation and of the world toward future wars and 
toward other nations in time of peace. A score of years 
ago it was thought that the making of permanent peace 
among nations was a matter of only a short time. Since 
the World War, we have been less hopeful, because we 



The prob- 
lem of coast 
defense. 




Copyright, Underwood and Underwood 

An American Fleet in Review 



Importance 
of the 
engineer 
and naval 
officer. 



For what 
shall we 
prepare? 



404 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Why peace 
must ac- 
complish 
more than 
war. 



realize how easy it is for one country to drag into a con- 
flict a number of others who prefer peace to war. A 
League of Nations has been organized, with the hope of 
bringing peace, but it has no authority to enforce its 
decisions against its own members, and certainly has no 
influence over those who do not belong to the league. It 
is possible that this country or the League or conferences 
will work out some permanent and satisfactory plans 
leading to real disarmament. If the world spends less 
money on navies and has a smaller number of young 
men in standing armies, that money and the services of 
those men could be devoted to the arts of peace and of 
civilization and to the promotion of culture. Many 
people believe that war is a necessity, and that the severe 
struggle of military conflict is good for the bodies and 
souls of men. But what of the aftermath of poverty and 
distress, of unrest and disorder! What of the lowered 
tone of morals, public and private, and of the carnival of 
crime which has been sweeping America and Europe in 

recent years! 

If our schools give a slipshod, half-hearted education, 
absolutely lacking in thoroughness; if our industrial life 
is noted for its inefficiency, its poor methods, and its lack 
of results; if society is divided into classes in which a few 
have most of the wealth, power, influence, and rights, 
while the many bear most of the burdens and meet with 
nothing but injustice; then peace rather than war is the 
failure. We read with horror of men shot down brutally 
in great masses, yet some of us have never given a thought 
to the army of workers that every week give up their 
lives as victims of modern economic progress. In a 
single year, in this civilized country of ours, five times as 
many people are killed in industry as fell on both sides at 
the great three days' battle of Gettysburg. But the list 
of the dead is not all. The injured victims of our indus- 



INTERNATIONAL METHODS AND DEFENSE 405 

trial system number many millions every year; no 
European country had so large an annual list of wounded 
soldiers in the World War. 

Real preparedness is a process of more thorough prep- Prepared- 
aration, of greater efficiency in the school, in the office, path to 
and in the shop — of better character. It will not be con- national and 
tent with selfishness, personal or national, nor will it be greatness, 
satisfied with a patriotism of peace one whit less true and 
whole-hearted than the patriotism evoked by war. It 
demands that we give thought, and ever more thought, 
to our country and its problems, for our country and its 
needs. 

References 

1. International law. Willoughby, Rights and Duties of 
American Citizenship, Chap. IV. 

2. The Triple Alliance and German world politics. Ashley, 
Modern European Civilization, §§416-420. 

3. Conflict of the great alliances before 1914. Ashley, Modern 
European Civilization, §§426-430. 

4. The peace conference, 1919. Hayes, A Brief History of the 
Great War, 365-388. 

5. The Hague Court. Foster, Arbitration and the Hague 
Court, 58-78. 

6. Making of treaties. Harrison, This Country of Ours, 
134-141. 

7. A consul. Marriott, Uncle Sam's Business, 48-53. 

8. Uncle Sam, soldier. Marriott, Uncle Sam's Business, 54-64. 

9. Making the big guns. Marriott, Uncle Sam's Business, 
193-199. 

10. Building the warships. Marriott, Uncle Sam's Business, 
184-192. 

11. Uncle Sam, sailor. Marriott, Uncle Sam's Business, 65-83. 

12. The American navy. Fiske, B. A., World's Work, 33 (1917), 
256-275. 

*Coolidge, The United States as a World Power. 
*Foster, The Practice of Diplomacy. 
*Muir, Nationalism and Internationalism. 

* Primarily for teachers. 



406 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

*Moore, Four Phases of American Development. 

*Willoughby, Government Organization in War Time and After. 

*McDougall, The Group Mind. 

Questions 

1. What European peoples first organized modern nations? 
About how long ago was this done? What do you understand by 
diplomacy? Explain the difference between an ambassador and a 
minister. What is a treaty? Explain the international complica- 
tions due to (a) the vast expansion of international commerce, (b) 
new colonies, (c) high national tariffs, and (d) international trade 
rivalry. 

2. What is constitutional law? Statute law? International law? 
Where and how is international law made? Tell about the inter- 
national courts. 

3. Name two important international conferences. What war 
was settled by each? How many Hague peace conferences have 
been called? How was the Hague court developed, and what cases 
does it decide? 

4. What is the League to Enforce Peace? Describe the con- 
stitution of the League of Nations. (Explain (a) seat of government, 
(b) organization of the lower house, and (c) organization of the 
League Council.) 

5. Explain the significance of the geographical location of the 
United States. Contrast the international situation in Europe and 
in America. Show in what ways we are dependent upon Europe 
and to what extent we have been independent of the Old World. 

6. Why has the United States been the chief champion of 
neutrals? What has she done for neutrals? What is meant by 
international arbitration? Explain attempts made to use inter- 
national arbitration on a wider scale. 

7. Explain the Monroe Doctrine. What were the principles of 
the Monroe Doctrine at the beginning? Name two ways in which 
powerful European countries have tried to gain advantage for 
themselves in Latin-America. Is it true that the World War made 
the Monroe Doctrine unimportant? 

8. What do you understand by a great power? Name three 
elements of world power and show why a small country does not 
often possess any of them. Explain why "world power depends 
upon political and military strength." How may a world power 

gain prestige? 

♦Primarily for teachers. 



INTERNATIONAL METHODS AND DEFENSE 407 

9. At the close of a war where and by whom is a treaty likely 
to be made? Who makes ordinary treaties? If the United States 
wishes to make a treaty, by whom are the negotiations conducted? 
What committee of Congress is consulted, and by whom must the 
treaty be ratified? Explain the general work of a consul, and give 
a number of his duties. 

10. What kind of army did we have in the United States before 
the World War? How were men " selected" for the American army 
during the World War? What is meant by a militia? By a General 
Staff? By the West Point Military Academy? 

11. What is the importance of a navy to the United States? 
What other country has a navy larger than ours? Explain our 
problem of coast defense. Where is our naval academy located? 

12. Why is it possible or desirable to have partial disarmament of 
the leading powers? Name ways in which peace may accomplish 
more than war. 



CHAPTER XXIV 



Citizenship 
as member- 
ship. 



CONCLUSION 

1. Citizenship 

a. What citizenship is 

b. What citizenship involves 

2. Democracy 

a. The nature of democracy • 

b. The people and their government 

c. World obligations of democracy 

Citizenship 

314. What Citizenship is. — As stated at the beginning 
of this book, and intimated repeatedly throughout, 
citizenship is membership. We usually think of citizen- 
ship, however, only in connection with membership in the 
largest society of all, the nation. When we speak of a 
citizen, we think of him as a citizen of the United States, 
although the Constitution stresses the fact that a citizen 
of the United States is also a citizen of the state. It is 
well for us to keep this fact in mind. It is also well to 
remember, that, just as we are citizens of a common- 
wealth or state within the Union, we are members of all 
other groups to which we belong. These would include 
groups that we usually consider political, such as the 
community (city or village), social groups such as the 
family, the school, and the church, and, at least for adults, 
economic groups such as the business in which one has a 
part. 
Relation- A person can not be a member of any group without 

Members of having relations both with other members of the group 
any group. anc | w ^ the group as a whole. 

408 



CITIZENSHIP 409 

315. What Citizenship Involves.— The author has importance 
tried to show that citizenship is not chiefly a matter for ship aftte 
adults, that most of us are citizens from our birth, and pre ^ nt re " 
that we are citizens and have civic rights and duties 5e. ' 
whether we wish them or not. The old idea that citizen- 
ship is confined to voters and that civic affairs are chiefly 
a matter of government is not only untrue but it is of 
very little value to boys and girls. When we grow to 
manhood and womanhood, citizenship may mean more 
to us than it does to-day; but citizenship is of little 
importance except at the moment that it brings us oppor- 
tunities to help ourselves and serve others. That can be 
done at only one time, the present. 

Because citizenship is membership, it involves civic How good 
rights and obligations in the home even from early child- maytf* 
hood. It means something to us in every one of our fnyouth" 1 
school years, and it helps us as adults to find our proper 
place in business, social activities, and community life. 
School courses in citizenship are intended to prepare 
youths for future activities and responsibilities. But, after 
all, the main purpose is to give training in citizenship. 
We need to learn facts about government and about 
society, not only for use in later years, but because of 
their value to us at present. If we develop habits of 
learning what is right, of looking at things sanely, of 
forming judgments uninfluenced by prejudice or per- 
suasion, we shall do much more than make for ourselves 
good character. We shall not simply be preparing for 
citizenship, but we shall be good citizens, and we shall be 
becoming better citizens. 

A good citizen is not necessarily prominent in political Character- 
affairs. A man who wants to know more of life as it is ^odSt* 
lived with his fellows, a man who does not shirk problems, zen ' 
but seeks to solve them, a man who has worked out 
for himself high standards of right and wrong, a man 



410 



THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 



Democracy 
and citizen- 
ship. 



How demo- 
cratic gov- 
ernment 
depends on 
other forms 
of demo- 
cratic group 
organiza- 
tion. 



Democratic 
legislation. 



who wants to live the largest life that he can and play 
the greatest part possible in human society — such a man 
is a good citizen. 

Democracy 

316. The Nature of Democracy. — What citizenship is 
to the individual, democracy is to the group. We say 
that democracy is popular self-government, and we think 
of it chiefly in terms of presidents, elections, and laws. 
It is infinitely more than that. If a good citizen is a man 
of knowledge, high principles, civic spirit, and good judg- 
ment, then democracy is good group organization suited 
to the needs of the group itself, and capable of doing 
easily and economically the things required by the group. 

Democracy is therefore as much a characteristic of home, 
school, and shop as it is of government in city, state, or 
nation. No people will have a democratic government 
who do not have democratic group organization. If 
our homes are not good homes, giving boys and 
girls what those boys and girls need, if our schools 
are autocratically organized and administered, if our 
factories are managed by oppressive capitalists or equally 
oppressive labor organizations that try to make slaves of 
those with whom they are associated, the nation can not 
be democratic, no matter what its form of government 
may be. This means that, in order that we may speak of 
the nation as democratic, the nation as a whole, and its 
business, and every one of the governments or other groups 
organized to carry on the national life must be well 
organized for the good of each group or the whole society. 

317. The People and Their Government. — No people 
can be democratic who do not have fair laws, justly 
administered. If the laws of a nation are made by one 
class for the benefit of that class, there is no democracy 
in that country. If the laws are made presumably by 



DEMOCRACY 411 

the whole people, but simply for the benefit of one class, 
there is little democracy in that country. If we wish to 
know whether a people is democratic or not, we ought 
not simply to ask if the people made the laws, but we 
ought to learn whether the laws are so just and fair that 
men are able to enjoy freedom and to live decently and 
uprightly with their fellows. True democracy is the best 
antidote for Bolshevism and anarchism. 

The greatest test of any democratic people is found in Democratic 
its courts of justice. Though laws may be fair in a S stra - 
country, every citizen does not necessarily get a square justice - 
deal. Even if the laws are not absolutely fair, if the courts 
are democratic, they will see that justice is done between 
man and man, that the rich man receives no more favor 
than the one who is poor, and that the individual of promi- 
nence and influence does not take advantage of his neighbor 
who is little known or unable to protect himself. In order 
to be democratic, a nation should have good laws, but it 
must have courts that are just to enforce them. 

318. World Obligations of Democracy.— When Presi- Limited 
dent Wilson in his wonderful message to Congress on the democracy 
second day of April, 1917, urged that America should f n sp ^fJ y ' 
"make the world safe for democracy/' others suggested SS. 
that it might be wise to make democracy safe for the 
world. It can be seen from the preceding paragraphs 
that as yet the world has comparatively little democracy. 
In recent years, the United States has adopted some new 
forms of democracy, but most European peoples are far 
more undemocratic than we. Among democratic problems 
of America are these : How shall we manage our affairs with 
other nations in a democratic way? Is it possible for 
treaties to be made democratically? If we apply the 
golden rule, the essence of democracy, to those foreign 
nations with which we have dealings, shall we not lose in 
prestige, in influence, and in opportunities for trade? 



412 THE PRACTICE OF CITIZENSHIP 

Obligations It stands to reason that the most democratic nation of 
democracy the world to-day, certainly the most democratic world 
feadeTship, power, must assume obligations to the world because it is 
democratic and in advance of other countries. This does 
not mean that the United States should participate 
actively in European affairs or should allow herself to 
become involved in controversies which do not affect 
either America or her world position. It does mean that 
we must cooperate with other nations in promoting peace 
and good will throughout the earth. It does mean that 
we must hot selfishly refuse to study world problems and 
bear our share of world burdens. It does mean that, 
wherever our experience or resources are of value to 
others, we should be willing to accept a position of 
leadership. It does mean that we should apply outside 
of the United States the same principles of fair treatment 
and square dealing which we have developed, as 
democracy, within our own boundaries. It does mean 
that in our dealings with other peoples, selfish aggran- 
dizement and unfair commercial advantage shall have no 
place. It does mean that, as the greatest power of the 
western hemisphere and probably the greatest world 
power of the future, we should try to share with some 
other peoples, less fortunate than ourselves, those 
advantages which have come to us, because our lot has 
been cast in a nation so greatly favored and so democratic. 

References 

1. Citizenship and civic relations. Ashley, The New Civics, 
§§1-20. 

2. Service and responsibility of citizenship. Brewer, American 
Citizenship, 61-84. 

3. Democracy as self-government. Tufts, The Real Business 
of Living, 389-397. 

4. Ideals oi' American democracy. Cleveland and Schafer 
(eds.), Democracy in Reconstruction, 25-47. 

5. What democracy is not. Bailey, What is Democracy?, 9-34. 



DEMOCRACY 413 

6. Progress and the task of democracy. Tufts, The Real Busi- 
ness of Living, 429-441. 

7. Freemen need no guardians. Wilson, The New Freedom, 
Chap. III. 

8. Modern European betterment and progress. Ashley, 
Modern European Civilization, §§485-494, 501-503. 

9. True Americanism. Roosevelt, American Ideals, Chap. II. 

*Cleveland, Organized Democracy. 
*Roosevelt, American Ideals. 
*Wilson, The New Freedom. 
*Bailey, What is Democracy? 
*Ross, What is America? 
*Follett, The New State. 

*Cleveland and Schafer (eds.), Democracy in Reconstruction. 
*Bryce, Modern Democracies, especially Parts I and III. 

* Primarily for teachers. 



APPENDIX 



A— BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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Adams, Thomas Sewall. (See Ely, Richard Theodore, Outlines of 

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Allen, Frederick James, Business Employments. Ginn, 1916. 
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417 






418 APPENDIX 

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Carlton, Frank Tracy, The History and Problems of Organized Labor, 
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APPENDIX 419 

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Coolidge, Archibald Cary, The United States as a World Power. 

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Coolidge, Mary Roberts. See Warner, Amos Griswold, American 

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Craddock, Ernest A., The Class-room Republic, A. & C. Black, Ltd., 

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Crile, George Washington, Man — An Adaptive Mechanism. Mac- 
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Crile, George Washington, Origin and Nature of the Emotions; 

miscellaneous papers. Saunders, 1915. 
Curtis, Henry Stoddard, Education through Play. Macmillan, 1915. 
Davies, Stanley P., with Haynes, Rowland, Public Provision for 

Recreation. Survey Committee of the Cleveland Foundation, 

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Davis, Philip (ed.), assisted by Schwartz, Bertha, Immigration and 

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Dealey, James Quayle, The Family in Its Sociological Aspects. 

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Dewey, John, Democracy and Education; an introduction to the 

philosophy of education. Macmillan, 1920. 



420 APPENDIX 

Dewey, John, How We Think. Heath, 1910. 

Dole, Charles Fletcher, The New American Citizen; the essentials of 
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Drake, Durant, Problems of Conduct; an introductory survey of 
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Dunn, Arthur William, Community Civics and Rural Life. Heath, 1920. 

Ellwood, Charles Abram, Sociology and Modern Social Problems. 
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Ely, Richard Theodore, Adams, Thomas S., Lorenz, Max O., Young, 
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Ely, Richard Theodore, and Orth, Samuel Peter, Property and Con- 
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Fairchild, Henry Pratt, Immigration; a world movement and its 
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Ferris, Helen Josephine, Girls' Clubs; their organization and manage- 
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Field, James Alfred, with Marshall, Leon Carroll, and Wright, 
Chester Whitney, Materials for the Study of Elementary Econom- 
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Filene, Catherine (ed.), Careers for Women. Houghton, 1920. 

Fisher, Irving, and Fisk, Eugene Lyman, How to Live; rules for 
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Flexner, Bernard, and Baldwin, Roger Nash, Juvenile Courts and 
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Follett, Mary Parker, The New State; group organization the solu- 
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Forman, Samuel Eagle, The American Democracy; a text in govern- 
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Fosdick, Raymond Blaine, American Police Systems. Century, 1920. 

Foster, John Watson, Arbitration and the Hague Court. Houghton, 
1904. • 

Foster, John Watson, The Practice of Diplomacy; as illustrated in 
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Friedman, Elisha Michael (ed.), American Problems of Reconstruc- 
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aspects. Dutton, 1918. 

Giles, Frederic Mayor, and Giles, Imogene Kean, Vocational Civics; 
a study of occupations as a background for the consideration of 
a life career. Macmillan, 1919. 



APPENDIX 421 

Giles, Imogene Kean, with Giles, Frederic Mayor, Vocational Civics. 

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Gillin, John Lewis, with Blackmar, Frank Wilson, Outlines of 

Sociology. Macmillan, 1915. 
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Godin, Paul (Eby, Samuel L., tr.), Growth During School Age — 

its application to education. Badger, 1920. 
Gollomb, Joseph, That Year at Lincoln High. Macmillan, 1918. 
Goodnow, Frank Johnson, and Bates, Frank Greene, Municipal 

Government. Century, 1919. 
Gregg, Fred Marion, Handbook of Parliamentary Law, a complete 

syllabus of rules of order with explanatory notes, directions for 

the study of parliamentary law, review questions, and usable 

graphic and diagrammatic classification of motions. Ginn, 

1910. 
Guyer, Michael Frederic, Being Well Born; an introduction to 

eugenics. Bobbs, 1916. 
Hadley, Arthur Twining, The Relations Between Freedom and 

Responsibility in the evolution of democratic government. Yale 

University Press, 1911. 
Hall, Granville Stanley, Adolescence; its psychology and its rela- 
tions to physiology, anthropology, sociology, sex, crime, religion, 

and education, 2 vols. Appleton, 1904. 
Hall, Granville Stanley, Educational Problems, 2 vols. Appleton, 

1911. 
Hall, Prescott Farnsworth, Immigration and Its Effects upon the 

United States. Holt, 1906. 
Hamilton, Walton Hale (ed.), Current Economic Problems; a series 

of readings in the control of industrial development, rev. ed. 

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conditions, rev. ed. Longmans, 1918. 
Hart, Albert Bushnell, Practical Essays on American Government. 

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Hart, Joseph Kinmont, Community Organization. Macmillan, 1920. 
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of the Cleveland Foundation, 1920. 



422 APPENDIX 

Haynes, Rowland, and Matson, Carlton K., A Community Recrea- 
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Henderson, Charles Hanford, Education and the Larger Life. Hough- 
ton, 1902. 

Herrick, Charles Judson, An Introduction to Neurology. Saunders, 
1918. 

Hill, Hibbert Winslow, The New Public Health. Macmillan, 1916. 

Hoag, Ernest Bryant, Health Studies; applied physiology and 
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Hoffman, Edwin M. (comp.), The High Calling. Association Press, 
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Holcomb, Arthur Norman, State Government in the United States. 
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Howe, Frederic Clemson, The Modern City and Its Problems. Scrib- 
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Irvine, Alexander, My Lady of the Chimney Corner. Century, 1913. 

Jackson, Henry Ezekiel, A Community Center; what it is and how 
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James, Herman Gerlach, Local Government in the United States. 
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Jenks, Jeremiah Whipple, Citizenship and the Schools. Holt, 1906. 

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Jennings, Herbert Spencer, Watson, John B., Meyer, Adolf, and 
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Jewett, Frances Gulick, The Next Generation; a study of the physi 
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Johnson, Emory Richard, American Railway Transportation. Apple- 
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Jones, Stella W. See McPheters, George A., and Cleaveland, Grace 
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King, Willford Isbell, The Wealth and Income of the People of the 
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APPENDIX 423 

Kitson, Harry Dexter, How to Use Your Mind; a psychology of 
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Lapp, John Augustus, and Mote, Carl Henry, Learning to Earn; a 
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Lyon, Leverett Samuel, with Marshall, Leon Carroll, Our Economic 
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Mackie, Ransom A., Education During Adolescence; based partly 
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Macy, Jesse, Party Organization and Machinery. Century, 1904. 

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Marriott, Crittenden, How Americans are Governed in nation, state, 
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Marriott, Crittenden, Uncle Sam's Business told for young Ameri- 
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Marshall, Leon Carroll, and Lyon, Leverett Samuel, Our Economic 
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Marshall; Leon Carroll, Wright, Chester Whitney, and Field, James 
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Mathews, John Malery, Principles of American Slate Administration. 
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Matson, Carlton K., with Haynes, Rowland, A Community Recrea- 
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McDougall, William, The Group Mind; a sketch of the principles of 
collective psychology, with some attempt to apply them to the 
interpretation of national life and character. Putnam, 1920. 



424 APPENDIX 

McDougall, William, An Introduction to Social Psychology. Luce, 1909. 

McMurry, Charles Alexander, Teaching by Projects; a basis for pur- 
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McMurry, Charles Alexander, and McMurry, Frank Morton, The 
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McMurry, Frank Morton, How to Study and Teaching How to Study. 
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McMurry, Frank Morton, with McMurry, Charles Alexander, The 
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McPheters, George A., and Cleaveland, Grace J. A., assisted by 
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Meyer, Adolf, with Jennings, Herbert Spencer, Watson, John B., 
and Thomas, William I., Suggestions of Modern Science Con- 
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Moore, Ernest Carroll, What is Education? Ginn, 1916. 

Moore, John Bassett, Four Phases of American Development; feder- 
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Mote, Carl Henry, with Lapp, John Augustus, Learning to Earn. 
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Muir, Ramsay, Nationalism and Internationalism; the culmination 
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Munro, William Bennett, Principles and Methods of Municipal 
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Munro, William Bennett, The Government of the United States, 
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Munroe, James Phinney, New Demands in Education. Doubleday, 
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National Housing Conference, 1920, Housing Problems in America. 
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Nearing, Nellie Marguerite, with Nearing, Scott, Woman and Social 
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Nearing, Scott, Social Adjustment. Macmillan, 1911. 

Nearing, Scott, and Nearing, Nellie Marguerite, Woman and Social 
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Orth, Samuel Peter, with Ely, Richard Theodore, Property and Cons- 
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Ostrogorski, Moisei Iakovlevich, Democracy and the Party System in 
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APPENDIX 425 

Parmelee, Maurice, The Science of Human Behavior; biological and 

psychological foundations. Macmillan, 1913. 
Partridge, George Everett, Genetic Philosophy of Education; an 

epitome of the published educational writings of President G. 

Stanley Hall of Clark University. Sturgis and Walton, 1912. 
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Plehn, Carl Copping, Introduction to Public Finance. Macmillan, 1920. 
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1920. 

Reed, Anna Yoemans, assisted by Woelpper, Wilson, Junior Wage 
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Remsch, Paul Samuel (ed.), Readings on American Federal Govern- 
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Reinsch, Paul Samuel (ed.), Readings on American State Government 
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Roosevelt, Theodore, American Ideals and other essays, social and 
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Root, Elihu, The Citizen's Part in Government. Yale University 
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Ross, Edward Alsworth, The Old World in the New; the significance 
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Ross, Edward Alsworth, What Is America? Century, 1919. 

Rubinow, Isaac Max, Social Insurance; with special reference to 
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Schafer, Joseph, with Cleveland, Frederick Albert (eds.), Democracy 
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Schwartz, Bertha. See Davis, Philip (ed.), Immigration and Ameri- 
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Sharp, Frank Chapman, Education for Character; moral training in 
the school and home. Bobbs, 1917. 

Smith, Charles Alphonso, What Can Literature Do for Me? Double- 
day, 1913. 



426 APPENDIX 

Smith, Joseph Russell, Industrial and Commercial Geography. Holt, 
1913. 

Snedden, David Samuel, The Problem of Vocational Education. 
Houghton, 1910. 

Steiner, Edward Alfred, Nationalizing America. Revell, 1916. 

Streightoff, Frank Hatch, The Standard of Living among the Indus- 
trial People of America. Houghton, 1911. 

Sumner, Helen L., with Adams, Thomas Sewall, Labor Problems. 
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Taft, William Howard, Our Chief Magistrate and His Powers. 
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Taussig, Frank William, Principles of Economics, 2 vols. Mac- 
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Thomas, William I., with Jennings, Herbert Spencer, Watson, John 
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Towne, Ezra Thayer, Social Problems; a study of present-day social 
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Tracy, Frederick, The Psychology of Adolescence. Macmillan, 1920. 

Train, Arthur, The Prisoner at the Bar; side lights on the administra- 
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Tufts, James Hayden, The Real Business of Living. Holt, 1918. 

Van Hise, Charles Richard, The Conservation of Natural Resources in 
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Ward, Edward Joshua (ed.), The Social Center. Appleton, 1913. 

Ward, Harry Frederick, The New Social Order; principles and pro- 
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Warner, Amos Griswold, rev. by Coolidge, Mary Roberts, American 
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Watson, John B., with Jennings, Herbert Spencer, Meyer, Adolf, and 
Thomas, William L, Suggestions of Modern Science Concerning 
Education. Macmillan, 1917. 

Wayne, Kenneth Henroian, Building the Young Man. McClurg, 
1912. 



APPENDIX 427 

Whipple, Guy Montrose, How to Study Effectively. Public School, 

1916. 
Williams, Edward H., with Williams, Henry Smith, The Wonders of 

Science in Modern Life. Funk, 1912. 
Williams, Henry Smith, and Williams, Edward H., The Wonders of 

Science in Modern Life, 10 vols. Funk, 1912. 
Willoughby, Westel Woodbury, The American Constitutional System; 

an introduction to the study of the American state. Century, 

1904. 
Willoughby, Westel Woodbury, The Rights and Duties of American 

Citizenship. American Book. 
Willoughby, William Franklin, Government Organization in War 

Time and After; a survey of the federal civil agencies created 

for the prosecution of the war. Appleton, 1919. 
Wilson, Woodrow, Constitutional Government in the United States. 

Columbia University Press, 1908. 
Wilson, Woodrow, The New Freedom; a call for the emancipation of 

the generous energies of a people. Doubleday, 1913. 
Wolfe, Albert Benedict, Readings in Social Problems. Ginn, 1916. 
Woelpper, Wilson. See Reed, Anna, Junior Wage Earners. 
Woodburn, James Albert, Political Parties and Party Problems in the 

United States; a sketch of American party history and of the 

development and operations of party machinery, together with 

a consideration of certain party problems in their relations to 

political morality. Putnam, 1903. 
The World Almanac. Press Publishing Company. Annual. 
Wright, Chester Whitney, with Marshall, Leon Carroll, and Field, 

James Alfred (eds.), Materials for the Study of Elementary 

Economics. University of Chicago Press, 1913. 
Wright, Henry Parks, From School Through College. Yale University 

Press, 1911. 
Young, Allyn A. See Ely, Richard Theodore, Outlines of Economics. 
Young, James Thomas, The New American Government and Its 

Work. Macmillan, 1915. 
Zueblin, Charles, American Municipal Progress. Macmillan, 1916. 



APPENDIX B 



STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF RETURNS ON A QUES- 
TIONNAIRE ON TRAINING FOR CITIZENSHIP 1 

(North Central Association Secondary Schools) 

By C. O. Davis, University of Michigan 

Number of schools reporting 1,180 

Number developing citizenship through 
A. Arousing sentiments by means of 

I. Assembly talks 1,164 

Frequency of meetings 

(a) Daily 33 

(b) Weekly 520 

II. Music of stirring type 1,142 

III. Oral readings before classes 

1. Schools having 768 

2. Schools not having . 210 

IV. Prescribed class readings 

1. Schools having 869 

2. Schools not having 175 

V. Dramatics 

1. Schools having 398 

2. Schools not having 614 

VI. Pageantry 

1. Schools having 352 

2. Schools not having 674 

VII. Moving pictures 

1. Schools having 290 

2. Schools not having 710 

VIII. Stereopticons 

1. Schools having 438 

2. Schools not having 541 

IX. Literature taught inspirationally 

1. Schools claiming to do so .... 1,030 

2. Schools failing to do so 38 

X. Visits to places and institutions 

1. Schools doing so 495 

2. Schools not doing so 538 

Abridged from summary in School Review, 28 (1920), 279-282 

(431) 



432 APPENDIX 

B. Giving citizenship information through 
I. A course in civics 

1. Schools having ; . . . 1,148 

2. In course separated from history . 989 

II. A course in elementary sociology 

1. Schools having 298 

2. Schools not having ....... 770 

III. A course in elementary economics 

1. Schools having 696 

2. Schools not having 406 

IV. A course in current events 

1. Schools having 1,008 

2. Schools not having 121 

V. A course in morals, manners, and life prob- 
lems 112 

VI. A course in occupations (or similar course) . 194 

VII. History taught by stressing 

1. The worth of being free 1,057 

2. American ideals 639 

3. Development of free institutions . 446 

4. Current social problems 403 

5. Responsibilities of citizenship . . . 155 
VIII. Biography studied 

1. In some way unspecified 1,012 

2. In history and English courses . . 657 

3. In special programs or independ- 

ently 461 

IX. Knowledge of the problems of capital and 
labor gained through 

1. Assembly talks 161 

2. Debates and discussions 330 

3. Regular class work 526 

4. Readings and current events re- 

ports 176 

X. Training to use leisure time wholesomely by 
means of 

1. School athletics 159 

2. Lectures and talks 301 

3. Suggested readings 188 

4. Supervision of student affairs ... 173 

5. Student clubs and societies .... 194 






APPENDIX 433 

C. Giving practice in citizenship through connection with 

I. Junior Red Cross Societies 

1. Schools having 380 

2. Schools not having 172 

II. Junior Good Citizenship League or similar 
organization 

1. Schools having 76 

2. Schools not having . 658 

III. Boy Scout Organization 

1. Schools having 651 

2. Schools not having 305 

IV. Girl Scout Organization or Campfire Girls 

1. Schools having 522 

2. Schools not having 387 

V. Thrift clubs 

1. Schools having 421 

2. Schools not having 458 

VI. School paper 

1. Schools having 666 

2. Schools not having 360 

VII. Military training 

1. Schools having 208 

2. Schools not having 720 

VIII. Debating clubs 

1. Schools having 863 

2. Schools not having I94 

IX. Mock elections 

1. Schools having 568 

2. Schools not having 379 

X. Student self-government agencies 

1. Schools having 306 

2. Schools not having 55O 

3. Schools having formal machinery 

for 242 

4. Schools having teachers exert much 

control 204 

5. Schools having teachers exert little 

control 255 



434 APPENDIX 

C. Giving practice in citizenship through connection with 
XI. Schools inculcating patriotism through 

1. Patriotic celebrations 96 

2. Talks and lectures ....... 189 

3. Self-government agencies .... 223 
4 Student cooperative associations . 169 

5. Participation in school organizations 381 

6. Athletics 123 

7. Regular class work 353 

8. School discipline 127 

XII. Community centers 

1. Schools having 373 

2. Schools not having ....... 398 

Authorities believing training for citizenship can best be 

secured through 

1. Good teaching in all branches 346 

2. Courses in the social sciences and literature 188 

3. Stressing by teachers of ideals of conduct 381 

4. Personal example of teachers ' . 277 

5. Placing responsibilities for pupils personally 284 

6. Student organizations 328 

7. Providing out-of-school services for society 149 

8. School discipline 150 



INDEX 



Absence from school, 79-80 
Accidents, industrial, 238-239, 240 
Action, freedom of, 252 
Activities, student, 104-105. See 
also School citizenship, Part 
III 
Administrative boards: 
city, 350 
state, 345 
Adolescence. See Youth 
Advisory councils,. 105 
Agriculture, Department of, 218- 

219, 340 
Agriculture in schools, 192 (il.) 
Albany, 344 (il.) 
Ambassador, 390 
American government: 

activities of. See Chapters XVI 

and XVII 
organization of. See Chapter XX 
revenues of. See Chapter XIX 
Amendments to motions, 102 
Amendments to national constitu- 
tion, 335 
Americanization, 369-371 
American people, the, 357-361 
American race, the, 363 
Anglo-Saxons in America, 357-359 
Annapolis Naval Academy, 403 
Anti-trust legislation : 
national, 222-223 
state, 221-222 
Appointment, power of, 340, 345, 

347, 349, 350 
Arbitration: 
industrial, 234 
international, 396-397 
Arms Conference, Washington, 395, 

403 
Army, American, 401-402 
Articles of Confederation, 334 
Assemblies, school, 116-120 
Assessment of property, 327 



Atlanta, 343 (il.) 
Athletics, school, 143-145 
Austro-Hungary, immigration from, 
360 

B 

Bail, 254 

Ballot, election, 273-274 
Bankers, 176 
Banks, 35 

Baseball for teamwork, 145 
Bills, legislative, 342 
Bills of rights, 251-253 
Birmingham, 376 
Blind alley occupations, 170-171 
Boards, administrative: 
city, 350 
county, 347 
state, 345 
Boards, student, 106-107 

and classrooms, 108-110 
Bonds, issuance of, 327 
"Bone-head" play, 145 n. 
Bookkeeper, 173 
Borrowing money, 327 
Boss, the political, 270-271 
Boston, 311, 376 
Boycotts, 233 

Boyhood, problems of, 47-48 
Boy scouts, 148 
Brawn occupations, 178-180 
Bread, interrelations connected with, 

23-24 (ils.) 
Bryce, James (Lord) , quotation from, 

271 
Budget: 

family, 62-65 
national, 327-328 
Business: 

the citizen and, Part IV 

and government, 25, 29-30, 213- 

225 
organization, modern, 34-35, 211— 
215 



435 



436 



INDEX 



Cabinet, president's, 340 
California: 

city charters in, 347-348 

high school courses of study in, 
78 
Calisthenics, school, 139-140 
Campaign, political, 271 
Canada, immigration from, 358-359 
Capital : 

artificial, 206-207, 208 

and corporations, 213 

and distribution, 207 

and labor, 32, 34, 231-236 
Centers : 

civic, 315 

social, 383-385 
Chairman, 100, 101, 103 
Chambers of Commerce: 

city, 382 

junior, 147 
Character and citizenship, xix, 89 
Charitable organizations, 308 
Charity, 304-308 
Charters: 

city, 347-348 

corporation, 214 

county, 346 
Cheating, problem of, in examina- 
tion, 91-93 
Chicago, 311, 346, 376, 377, 383 
Chicago high schools, minimum re- 
quirements in, 155 
Child: 

needs of, 44-46 

obligations of, 14-15, 47 

protection of, 261-262 

rights of, 12-14 
Child labor, 44 (il.), 229-230 
Children, dependent, 305-306 
Cincinnati, 199 (il.), 383 
Circuit courts of appeal, national, 
341 

Cities : 

charters of, 347-348 
.government of, 348-351 
location of: 

commercial, 376 

industrial, 376 
people of, 377 



Cities: 

problems of. See Sanitation, 
Parks, City planning, Educa- 
tion, Housing, Health, public 
etc. 
Citizen : 

and business, Part IV 

nature of a, 3 

needs and relationships of, 9-12, 

15-16 
obligations of: 

childhood, 14-15, 46-47 
civic, 256-259 
financial, 319-320 
general, 17-18 
political, 274-276 
social, 385-387 
preparation of, for business, Chap- 
ter XII 
rights of: 

childhood, 12-14, 45-46 
economic, 207-209, 210-212, 
Chapter XIV, especially 230- 
233, 236-243 
general civil, 16-17, 249-256 
political, 266-274 
social, 261-266, Chapters XVII 
and XVIII 
school and, 80-81, 83-85, 91-96, 
119-120, 124-126, 148-150. 
See also School citizenship 
Citizenship: 

acquisition of, by naturalization, 

368-369 
as membership, 3, 408 
courses in, 75-76 
different uses of term, 3 
education for, v, 301-302, 409 
education in, v, vi-vii, xvii, xviii, 

xix, 409-410 
nature of, 408-410 
requirements of, for voters, 269 
school. See School citizenship 
City life and changing home, 59^ 65- 

66 
City manager, 349 
City planning, 313-315 
Civic centers, 315 
Civic development, 265-266 
Civic groups, 382 
Civic relations. See Relationships 
Civics clubs, 147-148 



INDEX 



437 



Civics, courses in, xv-xvi, 190, 301- 

302 
Civil liberty. See Chapter XV 
Civil Service Commission, 340 n., 

351 
Civil suits, 253 
Class meetings, 114-116 
Classes, school, organization of, 114- 

116 
Classrooms: 

examinations in, 89-93 

grammar school, 75-76 

high school, 78-79 

important problems of, 93-96 

preparation of work for, 83-85, 
88-89 

recitation in, 86-88 
Clayton Act, 223 n. 
Cleveland, xviii 

Cleveland, President Grover, quota- 
tion from, 126 
Clinics, school, 140, 289 
Coal miners, 174 
Collateral reading, 88-89 
Collective bargaining, 234-235 
College, problem of preparation for, 

157-158 
Colleges, state agricultural, 218 
College youth, 52-54 
Combinations, industrial, 221-223 
Commerce, power of Congress over, 

223-225, 337 
Commercial courses, 178 
Commission government, city, 349 
Commission, student. See Boards. 

student 
Committees, political party, 270 
Committees, student, 107-108, 109 
Common carriers, 216 
Community :- 

definitions of, 374, 375 

nation, 379-380 

organization of, 380-385 

others, 379, 380 

people of, 385—387 

rural, 375-376 

types of. 375. 376-380 

urban, 376-378 
Community chests, 308 
Community singing, 146 
Competition, 33, 211 
Composition, English, 163 



Compromises in Constitutional Con- 
vention (1787), 334 
Compulsory education, 188-189 
Concentration, need of, 84 
Concerts, school musical, 146 
Conciliation, industrial, 234 
Conduct in school assemblies, 119- 

120 
Congress: 

making of laws by, 342-343 
money powers of, 323-325, 337 
organization of, 335-336 
powers of, 336-337 
sessions of, 336 
Congresses, international, 392 
Conservation, human, 287-288 
Conservation of natural resources, 

210 
Constitutional law, 391. See also 

Constitutions 
Constitutions: 
national, 333-335 
state, 341-342 
student body: 

amendment of, 111—112 
general, 104-111 
written, 27 
Consular service, the, 401 
Continuation schools, 196 
Contracts, labor, 232-233 
Convention, national Constitutional 

(1787), 334 
Convention, national nominating, 

273, 338 
Cooperation, 29-34 

on athletic field, 144-145 
between employer and employee, 

31-32, 235-236 
between student body and class- 
room, 108-110 
on school grounds, 74 
Corporations: 

control of private industrial, 221- 

223 
definition of, 213 
private, 213-215 
public service, 215-218 
Corporation taxes, 323, 325 
Councils: 

community, 383 
municipal, 348-349 
student, 105-107 



438 



INDEX 



County, government of, 346-347 
Courses of study, 77-78, 153-157 
Courts : 

national, 341 

state, 345-346 
Credit, business, 35, 220 
Crime : 

definition of, 281 

prevention of, 281-282 

punishment of, 254-255, 282-283 
Criminal cases, 254 
Current events, school group study 

of, 104 
Customs duties, 323, 324 

D 

Debating, school, 132 

Debts, public, 321 

Defectives, 305-306 

Defendant, 253 

Defense, national, 395-396, 401-403 

Deftness, vocational uses of, 180-182 

Delinquents. See Juvenile courts 

Democracy: 

and the American school system, 

120-121, 298-302 
in the classroom, 79-81 
in constitution making, 27, 341- 

342 
education in, 298-302 
in the home, 50-54, 65-66, 120 
and the individual, 266, 268-270, 

274-275. See also Rights 
in international relations, 411-412 
leadership in. See Leadership 
nature of, 120, 122, 410 
people and, 410-411 
in play activities, 74, 140-141 
political, 266-276 
in school assemblies, 118—120 
and the schools, 198-202 
social, 357-361, 362-363, 385-387. 
See also Chapters XVII and 
XVIII 
in student activities, 121-122, 
123-125 
Democracy : 

world obligations of, 411—412 
See also Cooperation, Citizenship, 
education in and for; Group 
organization 






Departments, national administra- 
tive, 340 

Development methods of recitation, 

87 
Dewey system of library classifica- 
tion, 131 n. 
Diplomacy, international, 389 
Direct legislation, 267 
Discrimination, need of, 85 
Disease, control of, 288-289 
Dispensaries, medical, 307 
Distribution, economic, 207 
District courts, national, 341 
Division of labor, 212 
Divorce : 

causes of, 58-59 

increase of, 59 n. 

remedies for, 59-60 
Domestic science in schools, 193-194 
Draft, use of, 402 
Dramatics, school, 134-135 
Duties, civic. See Obligations 
Duties, customs, 323, 324 



E 

Earning a living: 

difficulties of, 236-242 

high school preparation for, 159- 
160 

opportunities for, Chapter XI 
Economic organization. See Busi- 
ness 
Editors, school, 133-134 
Educated man, definition of, 164-105 
Education: 

for c r tizenship, 263-264 

cost and value of, 95-96 

courses and work of, 77-79, 83-89, 
Chapter X 

definition of, 191 

finances of, 321 

general, 298-304 

pre- vocational courses of, 189-196 

in process of Americanization, 370 

vocational guidance in, 196-202 
Elastic clause, 337 
Elections, 273-274 

congressional, 335 

municipal, 349-350 

student, 106 (il.) 



INDEX 



439 



Elective subjects, high school, 78, 
156-157 

Electoral college, the, 338 

Eminent domain, 322 

Employee, disadvantage of, in mak- 
ing contract with employer, 
232-233. See also Labor 

Employer's liability, 240 

English in America, 357-359 

English, importance of training in, 
162-163 

Enterprise, private, 211 

Enterpriser and profit, 207 

Enterprisers, training of, 178 

Environment and childhood, 12-14 

Epidemics, control of, 288-289 

Essentials, minimum, in high schools, 
153, 154, 155, 158 

Europe, immigration from. See Im- 
migration 

Examinations: 

preparation for, 89-91 
problems of cheating in, 91-93 

Excursions, school, 147 

Executive department, 26 

Expenditures: 
family, 61, 63-65 
governmental, 320-322 

Experiment stations, 218 

F 

Factory regulations, 231 
Fall River, 376 
Family: 

divorce and, 58-60 

expenditures of, 61, 63-65 

income of, 61-63 

marriage and, 57-58 

past, present, and future, 65-66 

in relation to children, Chapter 
III 

size of American, 60-61 

as a social unit, 56-57 
Federation of civic clubs, 382 
Felonies, 254 
Fenelon, 380 
Finance, public, 319-330 
Fires: 

losses from, 285 

methods of fighting, 286-287 

rules regarding, 285-286 



Food: 

family expenditures for, 63-65 

laws regarding, 290-292 

supply of, 23-24 
Football and teamwork, 31, 144-145 
Foreign commerce, 220-221, 390 391 
Foreign language clubs, 147 
Foreign relations: 

general, Chapter XXIII 

Senate committee on, 401 
Forest reserves, 210 
Forestry clubs, 147 
Fourteenth amendment, 5 
Franchise, elective. See Suffrage 
Franklin, Benjamin, quotation from, 

333 
Freedom, personal, 210-211, 251 

G 

Garbage, disposal of, 290 
General property tax, 327 
George Junior Republics, 123, 209 
George, William R., 208-209 
General staff, 402 
Geneva, 394 

German immigration, 359-360 
Giddings, Franklin H., quotation 

from, 164 
Girls' Leagues, 149 
Government: 

and business, 25, 29-30, 213-219 

city, 347-351 

control of business, 219-225 

control of immigration by, 366- 
367 

control of naturalization by, 367- 
368 

county, 346-347 

and divorce, 60 

and economic needs, 29-30 

financial support of, Chapter XIX 

general, 26-27 

as instrument of groups, 24-30 

and marriage, 57, 60 

national, 333-341 

organization of, Chapter XX 

protection of worker by, Chapter 
XIV 

relations of, with other govern- 
ments, Chapter XXIII 

rights under. See Rights 



440 



INDEX 



Government: 

state, 341-346 
Governor, state, 344-345 
Grades. See Grammar school 
Graduation, requirements for, 77, 

153-154 
Grammar school, training in, 189- 

190 
Great Britain, immigration from, 

357, 358-359 
Greek, 191 
Group organization, 4-5 

and democracy, 122. See also 

Democracy, Government 
economic, 30-35, 211-225 
and the home, 43-44 
and the individual, 93-95 
political, 24-30, 266-268, Chapter 
XX. See also Government 
social, 35-36. See also Family, 

Education, etc. 
student, 104-111, 116-126 
Groups: 

classes and schools as, 21 

community, Chapter XXII 

democratic, 122 

general, 4-5 

and the individual, 36-37. See 

also Citizenship 
and their interrelationships, 20- 

24, 36, Chapter XXIII 
large, in relation to member groups 

28, 36 
and leadership, 36-37. See also 

Leadership 
member, 36 

and members, 4-5, 22-23 
public needs of, 24-26 
racial composition of American, 

Chapter XXI 
and social protection of the indi- 
vidual, 261-266 
study of, v-vii, xvii-xviii 
and the worker, 232 et seq. 
Guidance, vocational, 196-202 
Gymnasium, school, 139 

H 

Habeas corpus, writ of, 255 n. 

Hague Court, 393 

Hague Peace Conferences, 392-393 



Harding, President, and cabinet, 339 

(il.) 
Health : 

child rights to, 12 
public: 

and disease, 288-289 
and human life, 287-288 
and pure foods, 290-292 
and wastes, 289-290 
High schools. See Education, Stu- 
dent government, etc. 
Home: 

boy and girl in, 47-48 

freedom of, 252 

general, Chapter III 

importance of, 43-44 

past, present, and future, 65-66 

relation of, to child, 45-47, 262 

young man or young woman in, 

52-54 
youth and, 48-51 
See also Child, Family 
Hi-Y clubs, 148 
Home-making courses, 193-194 
Honor societies, school, 135-137 
Honor system, the, in schools, 89, 

92-93 
Hood, Thomas, quotation from, 238 
Hospitals, 306-307 
Houghton, Lord, quotation from, 37 
Hours of work, 174-176 

for women, 231 
House building, cooperation in, 31- 

32 
House of Representatives, national: 
organization of, 335 
special powers of, 338 
Housing, 292-295 
Huguenots, French, 358 



Immigration: 
colonial, 357-358 
economic results of, 364-365 
geographical results of, 363-364 
laws restricting, 366-367 
nineteenth century, 358-360 
periods of, 360-363 
recent, 360-361 
social results of, 361, 365-366 

Impeachment, 268, 338 n. 

Income, family, 61-63 






INDEX 



441 



Income taxes, 323, 324 
Independence, youth and, 50-51 
Indianapolis, 164 (il.) 313 
Industries, national, 171 
Information and knowledge, 84 
Inheritance taxes, 325-326 
Initiative, 267 

uses of, in school, 110 
Inspection : 

of factories, 231-232 

of foods, 290-292 
Interest, importance of, 84, 162 
Internal revenue taxes, 223, 324- 

325 
International arbitration, 396-397 
International law, 391-392 
International relations, Chapter 

XXIII 
Interstate Commerce Commission, 

224-225 
Inventiveness, school use of, 182 
Invisible government, 271 
Irish in America, 359 
Isolation, splendid, 395-396 
Italy, immigration from, 360 



Journalism, class in, 133 n. 
Judges : 

national, 341 

state, 346 
Judicial department, 26 
Judiciary: 

national, 341 

state, 345-346 
Junior Chambers of Commerce, 147 
Junior high school, 76-77. See also 
Education, School citizenship 
Jury duty, 258-259 
Jury system, 255-256 
Juvenile courts, 283-284 



K 

Kansas City, 160 (il.), 376 
Kipling, Rudyard: 

quotation from, 177 

story by, 74 
Knowledge vs. information, 84 



Labor: 

capital and, 32, 34, 231-236 

child, 229-230 

and distribution, 207 

economic rights of, 229-233, 236- 
242 

effect of immigration on, 364-365 

unemployment problem of, 237- 
238 

woman, 230-232 
Laboratory methods, -64 
Lands, public, 210 
Land as wealth, 206 
Landlord, 32, 207 
Large scale industry, 212-213 
Latin, 191 

Law, business, 25, 220 
Lawlessness, 280 
Law-making, process of, 342-343 
Lawyer, desirable qualities of, 183 n. 
Leadership: 

business opportunities for, 184-185 

in the classroom, 87, 125-126 

and community, 381-382, 383-386 

in a democracy, 275-276 

and group organization, 93-95, 
125-126 

within groups, 36-37 

in school assemblies, 118-119 

school development of, 182 

on school grounds, 74 

in school groups, 93-95 

school training for, 178 

in student body, 105, 106-107, 
109-110 
Legislative department, 26 
Legislature, state, 342-343 

work of, 343-344 
League of Nations, 380, 393-394, 404 
League to Enforce Peace, 393 
Lessons: 

assignment of, 83 

preparation of, 83—85 
Liberty bonds, 327 
Liberty: 

civil, Chapter XV 

social and political, Chapter XVI 
Library : 

public, 301 

school, 129-132 



442 



INDEX 



Life, preparation for, high school 
subjects and, 158-159 

Life, value of human, 287-288 

Lincoln, Abraham, 241 

Liquor, tax on, 324 

Living wage, 241 

Local government, 346-352 

Localized industries, objections to, 
171 

Lockouts, 233 

Longfellow, Henry W., quotation 
from, 276 

Los Angeles, 108 (il.), 303 (il.) 

Lowell, 376 

Lunches, school, problems of, 72-73 

M 

Machine, political, 270-271 
Machinery, protected, 239 (il.) , 240 
Major subjects, high school, 78, 154, 

155 
Manager, business, 178 

training of, 185 
Manager, the city, 349 
Manhood suffrage, 269 
Market, cooperation in, 33 
Marriage: 

individual and, 57-58 

society and* 57 
Marriage laws, reform of, 60 
Maximum rates, railway, 224 
Mayor, city, 348-349 
Meats, inspection of, 291, 292 
Mechanical arts, courses in, 191-193 
Meetings, school, 114-116 

organization, of , 100-101 
Membership, 3, 5, 408 
Memory, training of, 160-161 
Mental discipline, 161 
Metropolis, 379 

Military Academy, West Point, 402 
Military organization, school, 141- 

143 
Military service, 257-258 
Militia, American, 402 
Milk, pure, 30, 290-291 
Minimum wage laws, 231-232 
Ministry, 177 

preparation for, 183 n. 
Minor subjects, school, 78, 154, 155- 
156 



Misdemeanors, 254 

Monopolies, economic and the pub- 
lic, 242-243 

Monopoly, 33, 212 

Monroe Doctrine, 396, 397-398 

Mothers' pensions, 308 

Motions, parliamentary, 101-103 

Municipal government. See Cities, 
government of 

Music in schools, 145-146 

N 

Nation communities, 379-380 
Nation, definition of, 27 n. 
National government, 333-341 

commerce controlled by, 223-225 

finances of, 320, 323-325, 327-330 

foreign relations of, Chapter 
XXIII 

industry controlled by, 222-223 

See also Congress, President, 
Courts, national 
Naturalization, process of, 367-369 
Naval Academy, Annapolis, 403 
Navy, American, 402-403 
Navy, Department of, 340, 403 
Needs: 

economic, 29 et seq. 

human, and relationships, 4, 9-10, 
16 

personal, 4, 9-10, 16, 26 

public, 24-26 
Neighborhood, 382-383, 385 
Neutrals, rights of, 396 
New England, colonial people of, 357 
New Jersey, 358 
New Orleans, 23 (il.) , 376 
New York City, 154, 295 (il.), 311, 
376, 377, 378 (il.), 379 

playgrounds in, 309 
New York state, 358, 365 
Nominating conventions, 273 

O 

Obedience, importance of, 257 
Obligations, 11-12, 15-18 

of childhood, 14-15 

civic, 256-259 
Occupational placement, 200-202 
Occupations. See Vocations 

to be avoided, 171, 172, 174, 176 



INDEX 



443 



Officers, class, 115 

Officials, public. See Appointments, 
Elections 

Omaha, 376 

Oral expression, 184 

Ordinances, making of, 347, 348 

Organization. See Group organiza- 
tion, Party, political 

Oriental immigration, 367 

Outdoor relief, 306 

Outlines, making of, 88 



Pageantry: 

community, 385 (il.) 

school, 134-135 
Papers, school, 132-134 
Parks, public, 311-313 
Parliamentary law, 99-104 
Partnership, 213 
Part-time schools, 200-201 
Party, political, the: 

and elections, 273-274, 350 

and nominations, 272-273, 338 

organization of, 270—271 

work of, 271-272 
Pasadena, 86 (il.), 157 (il.) 
Patronage, 272 
Paupers, 306 
Peace, 392-393, 395, 404 
Pennsylvania, 154 

original people of, 358 
Personal property as wealth, 205, 208 
Personality, 182 
Petition, freedom of, 252 
Philadelphia, 311 
Physical education, 137-141 
Physician, desirable qualities of, 

183 n. 
Pittsburgh, 376 
Plaintiff, 253 
Planning, city, 313-315 
Platoon systems, 287 
Play activities, school, 140-141 
Playgrounds : 

city, 308-311 

grammar school, 73-74 

high school, 72-73 
Plays, school, 135 
Police departments, 281-282 
Political democracy, 266-276 



Political parties. See Party, political 

Population, 357-361, 377 

Post office, Department of, 218, 340 

Poverty: 

causes of, 304-305 

relief of, 305-307 

remedies for, 307-308 
Preparedness, 403-405 
President : 

cabinet and, 340 

Congress and, 337-338, 340 

election of, 338 

Monroe Doctrine and, 397-398 

nomination of, 273, 338 

powers of, 340 
Presiding officer of meetings. See 

Chairman 
Press, freedom of, 253 
Previous question, 103 
Pre- vocational training, general. See 

Vocations 
Primary elections, 272-273 
Prisons, 282-283 
Private property, 207-209 
Probation, juvenile, 284 
Production: 

cooperation in, 32 

importance of economic, 206-207 
Professions, school training for, 183- 

184 
Profiteer, 33 
Projects, xxvii, 87 
Property: 

land, 206, 210 

personal, 205 

private, 207-209 

public, 209-210 
Protection against government, 250- 

253 
Protection, governmental, 249 et seq., 

Chapter XVII 
Protective tariffs, 220-221 
Psychology, newer, 161 
Publications, school, 132-134 
Public health, 262-263, 287-292 
Public improvements, finances of, 

321-322 
Public lands, 210 
Public opinion, 267 
Public ownership, 209-210, 217-218 
Public property, 209-210 
Public safety, 280-287 



444 



INDEX 



Pupil, school: 

and classroom, 75-80 

and playground, 72-75 

and teacher, 80, 81 

See also School citizenship 
Pure food laws, 290-292 
Puritans, New England, 358 



Q 

Quarantine, 288-289 
Questions: 

examination, 90-91 

recitation, 86-88 
Quorum, 101 

R 

R's, the three, 190, 304 
Radio clubs, school, 147 
Railways, 215-216 

control of, 223-225 
Reading, collateral, 88-89 
Real estate, tax on, 327 
Recall, 268 

use of, in school, 111 
Recitation, different types of, 86 
Reconsideration, motion regarding, 

103 
Reconstruction after World War, 366 
Referendum, 267 

use of, in school, 110-111 
Relationships: 

direct, 10 

human, 4, 9-12 

indirect, 11 

one- and two-sided, 11-12, 15-16 

See also Government, Labor and 
capital, School citizenship, 
Leadership, etc. 
Religious liberty, 253 
Removals. See Appointment 
R. O. T. C, 143 

Resourcefulness, school use of, 182 
Responsibility: 

of public officials to constituents, 
267-268 

of student officers to student body, 
108-109 
Representation, legislative, 334, 335 , 

342 
Revenue. See Finance 
Review of subjects, 90 



Rights: 

of childhood, 12-14 

civil, 249-256 

economic, 236-243 

political, 266-276 

in relation to duties, 11-12, 15-18 

social, 261-266, 280-315 
Ring, political, 270-271 
Roosevelt, Theodore, 138, 402 
Russia, immigration from, 360 



S 

Safety, public, 280-287 

St. Joseph, 376 

San Francisco, 314 (il.), 376 

Sanitation, 262-263, 294 

Scandinavian immigration, 360 

School assemblies, 116-120 

School citizenship: 

and class organization, 114-116 

and classroom, 79-81, 83-88 

and examinations, 91-93 

general, Chapters V-X 

and library, 88-89, 129-132 

nature of, 71-72, 92-95, 118-120 

and outside work, 88-89 

and playground, 72-75 

and school organizations, Chapter 
IX 

and student body, 104-112, 117- 
120, 121-126 
School clinics, 289 
School self-government, 122-123 
School teachers, 176 
Schools, finances of, 321 
Schools, public, present system of, 
302-304. See also Education 
Science, importance of, 163-164 
Scotch-Irish in America, 358 
Seasonal industries, 174 
Secretaries, national administrative, 

340 
Self-government. See also Democ- 
racy 

school, 106, 122-123 

student, 104-112, 121-122, 123- 
126 
Senate, United States: 

organization of, 335 

special powers of, 337-338 

special sessions of, 336 n. 



INDEX 



445 



Sessions, congressional, 336 

Seventeenth amendment, 335 n. 

Sewage, disposal of, 290 

Shakespeare, William, 138 

Sheriff, 347 

Sherman Anti-Trust Act, 222-223 

Short ballot, 267 

Sixteenth amendment, 324 

Skill, mechanical, development of, 

180 
Slum, city, 293-294 
Smuggling, 324 
Social centers, 383-385 
Social criminal, 364-365 
Social organization, 35-36. See also 

Group organization 
Social rights. See Rights, social 
Social service: 

in regular occupations, 176-177 

in schools, 148-149 
South Carolina, 358 
Sovereignty, definition of term, 23 n. 
Special assessments, 322 
Specialization, modern economic, 34- 

35,212-215 
Speech, freedom of, 252-253 
Spencer, Herbert, quotation from, 

137 
Spoils system, 271 
Standard Oil Trust, 222 
Standards of living, 61-65 
State: 

constitution of, 341-342 

executive of, 344-345 

finances of, 325-327 

judiciary of, 345-346 

legislature of, 342-344 

technical description of, 27—29 
Statute law, 343-344, 391 
Stenographer, 173 
Streets, 215-216, 322 
Strikes, 233 

Student assemblies, 117-118 
Student body, general organization 

of, 104-112 
Student organization, 104-110. See 

also School citizenship 
Student self-government, 104-112, 

121-122, 123-126 
Study, methods of, 85 
Suffrage: 

history of, 268-269 



Suffrage: 

at present, 269-270 

right of, 266 
Supreme Court, national, 341 
Sweat shop workers, 44 (il.), 294. 



Tardiness, school, 79 
Tariff, protective, 220-221 
Tax: 

basis of just, 322 

corporation, 325 

customs duties, 324 

definitions of, 322 

excise, 324-325 

general property, 327 

income, 324 

inheritance, 325-326 

national, 323-325 

state and local, 325-327 
Teacher and pupil, 80-81 
Team work. See Cooperation 
Technical courses: 

in continuation schools, 196 

in high school, 191-194 

in trade schools, 194-196 
Telephone operators, 175 
Tenements: 

condition of, 293-294 

reform of, 294-295 
Territory, congressional control of, 

337 
Thomas, W. L, quotation from, 85 
Thrift, 208 

Tobacco, tax on, 324-325 
Topic recitation, 87-88 
Track contests, 145 
Trade schools, 194-196 
Treaties: 

making of, 400-401 

ratification of, 103 
Trials, public, 254-255 
Trusts, 221-223 



U 



Unemployment, 237-238 
Uniforms, school, 141 
Urban communities, 376-378. 
also Cities 



See 



446 



INDEX 



Van Dyke, Henry, quotation from, 

160 
Versailles treaty, 393 n. 
Veto: 

of governor, 345 

of president, 340 
Vice President: 

election of, 338 

nomination of, 273 
Vocational guidance, 196-202 
Vocations: 

desirable for beginners, 173 

guidance in selection of, 196-202 

offering opportunities for advance- 
ment, 173, 176-178 

preparation for, general, 169-170 

pre-vocational training for, 189- 
196 

the selection of, Chapter XI 
Voters: 

obligations of, 274-275 

qualifications of, 269-270 
Voting: 

parliamentary method of, 103 

process of, 273-274 

s W 

War, Department of, 340, 402 

War powers of national government, 

337, 340 
Warrant, 254 
Washington, 313, 336, 339, 390, 400 

(ils.) 
Washington, Booker T., quotation 

from, 183 n. 
Washington, George, 334, 396 
Washington, peace conference at, 

395, 403 
Waste, disposal of, 289-290 



Waterbury, 348 (il.) 
Water plants, municipal, 217-218 
Ways and Means Committee, 328 
Wealth, explanation of, 205-206. 

See also Property 
Wellington, Duke of, quotation from, 

163 n. 
West Point Military Academy, 402 
Wilson, Woodrow, quotations from, 

18, 411 
Woman: 

and divorce, 58-60 
and future home, 65-66 
and marriage, 57-58 
political and legal independence 
of, 59 
Woman suffrage, 269 
Woman workers: 
number of, 230 
occupations of, 181-182, 230 
protection of, 230-232 
Woodshop courses, 192-193 
Work: 

conditions of, 174-176, 238-239 
regulation of, 173-174 
right to, 236-237 
Workmen's compensation, 240-241 
World communities, 380 
World power, United States as, 398- 
400 



Y. M. C. A., 382 
Y. W. C. A., 382 

Youth: 

early years of, 48-49 
problems of, 50-51 
traits of, 49-50 

Z 



Zoological gardens, 312 



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